Agriculture Reference
In-Depth Information
they preferred a system of trust-based governance, certification was convenient since
it limited their need to be actively involved in the project. Thus, while a formal
distinction remained between the organic division and the larger sustainable shrimp
project, in practice, the principles, measures, and the audits of the organic division
have begun to influence the entire sustainable shrimp project.
3.4
Organic Certification: Standards, Measures, and Audits
As described above, prior to organic certification, the sustainable shrimp project
was based on relations of trust between farmers and co-op members, which were
maintained largely through face-to-face relations. This arrangement fits with the
objective of alternative food and agriculture of building democratic and participa-
tory relationships in which both producers and consumers have a voice. However,
with the development of formal standards, measures, and audits with certification,
notions of objectivity, calculability, and expert knowledge began to displace such
shared governance, mutual understanding, and trust. The three subsections below
examine the ways that the development of the standards, measurement of compli-
ance with the standards, and audits affect the original principles of the project.
3.4.1
Standards of Sustainable Farming
As noted earlier, prior to receiving organic certification, standards in the sustainable
shrimp project were the outcome of continuous and ongoing dialogue and nego-
tiation between Indonesian shrimp farmers and Japanese co-op members. Thus,
both farmers and co-op members were able to express their positions and had
direct control over the definition of sustainable shrimp farming. However, with
certification, the standards-development process underwent considerable changes.
The most notable change was the requirement that the organic standards had to be
supported by scientific evidence. Put differently, what sustainable shrimp farming
entailed became a product of science. This impacted the project in two significant
ways. First, it constrained the degree to which farmers (and consumers) were able to
participate in the development of the standards. Second, it made the standards quite
rigid and thus, limited the ability of farmers to adapt their farming practices to local
conditions.
Green Soil viewed input by project participants into the standards as necessary
if they were to be efficacious. Thus, Green Soil used democratic practices for
developing standards. For the organic shrimp project, the standard-development
process entailed: first, Green Soil sharing the core principles of its organic standards
with SN and shrimp farmers. Second, based on Green Soil's core principles, SN
and shrimp farmers would propose organic standards for the shrimp project. Third,
Green Soil would review, amend, and finalize the standards. From the perspective of
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