Ethics in the Organic Movement - Re-Thinking Organic Food and Farming in a Changing World - page 13

￿ express the potential contribution that organic agriculture can make in the world

and they inspire a vision for improving all dimensions of the organic agrofood
chain in a global context (IFOAM 2012 );

￿ are meant to be universal and are proposed for those outside of, as well as those

within the organic movement (Alrøe and Kristensen 2004 );

￿ are intended to be applied in toto and with attention to their interdependence

(Luttikholt 2007 ;IFOAM 2009 ); and,

￿ combine a strong focus on nature, and the human-nature relationship through the

coexistence of humans and the well-being of humans and communities (Freyer
2008 , p. 395; IFOAM 2009 ). They can be broadly applied, addressing social
relations as well as those with other living beings. They stress that organic
agriculture should maintain and conduct these relationships in a manner that
ensures health, ecology, fairness and care, and that includes equity, respect, and
stewardship for future generations and the environment as a whole.

Given these features, the Principles offer a basis for examining broader ecolog-
ical, social, economic and political relationships (Table 2.1 ). Compared to earlier
versions, they are more sensitive to social issues such as the idea of justice, mutual
respect, quality of life, fair salaries and prices etc. (Kristiansen and Merfield 2006 ,
p. 16; IFOAM 2009 ).
The application of these principles to decision-making processes and to guiding
further innovations in the organic system is quite controversial (Schmid and
Lockeretz 2007 , p. 167). At least two positions on this issue are obvious in the

Table 2.1 Five common human-nature relationships and how they may be practiced in agriculture
Views of Human-Nature Relationship
Anthropocentric Humans take hierarchical precedence over nature; the value of nature is
mainly instrumental (Nash 1989 ;Elmore 1996 )
Theocentric Nature, and all that lies within, is God's creation, and humans are to act as
stewards of those creations (Schaefer 2009 ; Gudorf 2012 )
Pathocentric All living things can experience suffering (Bentham 1978 ; Birnbacher
cited in Fenner 2010 )
Biocentric Non-human value of nature is recognized in plants, animals and soils
(Nash 1989 ; Kirchmann and Thorvaldsson 2000 )
Ecocentric/holistic A non-anthropocentric belief, which blends ecocentrism and holism in
which the non-human value of nature is recognized as holistic systems i.e.
ecosystems and the benefits for soils and minerals have in such systems, as
well as the intrinsic value of nature (Nash 1989 ;Sterba 2003 ;Hay 2010 )
Practices of Human-Nature Relationship in Farming (examples)
Anthropocentric Health, benefits of subsidies and price premiums

Theocentric Farmers need to manage God's creation, to use but not abuse

Pathocentric Animal welfare and pesticide free plant production

Biocentric Closing the cycle by producing own inputs, care for soil fertility, animals

and plants

Ecocentric/Holistic Closed-cycle; farm seen as an organism; recognizing the importance of

soils and diversity and integrating that in practices; using nature as a