Framework for Re-thinking Ethics in the Organic Movement - Re-Thinking Organic Food and Farming in a Changing World - page 265

these three types are relevant and we applied them to each organic sector. Thus, we
suggest that the framework deserves further investigation and application.
Similar to Alrøe and Noe ( 2008 ) typology, noted, each type follows its own logic,
and there is little room to combine attitudes and practices from different types,
largely because of the contradictory orientations between the types, specifically
between the Nature/Philo and Econo/Market types. There is also a tendency that
the Nature/Philo and Econo/Market types are more represented in practice, while
Enviro/Protest type may be less so. Moreover, we accept the importance of not
polarizing and oversimplifying the differences between two manifestations of
organic (Lockie et al. 2002 , p. 25; Lockie and Halpin 2005 ; Constance et al. 2008 ;
Rosin and Campbell 2009 ) as expressed by the term “bifurcation” (Constance et al.
2013 ).
Kaltoft ( 1999 ) argues that individual farmers, because of their commonalities
with one another, represent both a collection of diverse values and diverse organic
practices. Most organic actors may use some reasoning from all three rationales, and
there is no doubt that in between these three rationales, we find mixed approaches.
Therefore, the three labels do not do justice to the complexity of each type. In short,
unlike the position by Alrøe and Noe, we do not think that crystal clear boundaries
between the different types are essential to demarcate. 11
Similarly, consumer studies find a variety of motivations, perceptions, and
attitudes (Hughner et al. 2007 ). Consumer research on “willingness to pay”, 12
or investigations on environmental behavior, (e.g., the well-known phenomena of
differences between behavioral intention and concrete action), shed light on how
challenging the classification into three types could be (Shepherd et al. 2005 ;
Tarkiainen and Sundqvist 2005 ; Vermeir and Verbeke 2006 ;Arvolaetal. 2008 ).
This means that there might be serious reflections by the organic actors about an
ethical or principle based “organic lifestyle.” However, there are always enough
reasons why consumer practice differs from intentions and values. As a result, we
find individuals who hold all three types of values combined. Sometimes values are
practiced and sometimes not. Therefore, when theory (individuals intention) and
practice (individuals behavior) are not congruent, the boundaries between the three
types become blurred. What is measured in behavior or willingness to pay studies
is exactly a mixture of behavior and behavior intentions.
These observations do not contradict Alrøe and Noe's typology and reflections
in principle. We agree that ethics follow a systemic logic (Alrøe and Kristensen
2002 ) and must always be considered within a specific ecological, economic
and socio-cultural context. All three are ideal types, and at least typologies are
an approximation of reality (Johnston 2008 ). As we know from studies of the
conversion to organic, it is most helpful to understand those in the process as “on
the way” from one type or stage to the next. The types are steps in a learning process
11 (Meeusen et al. 2003 ; Darnhofer 2005 ; Van Huik et al. 2006 ; De Wit and Verhoog 2007 ).
12 (Gil et al. 2000 ; Loureiro and Hine 2002 ; Krystallis and Chryssohoidis 2005 ;DidierandLucie