Environmental Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
Introduction
Wind farms have long been considered detrimental to birds, although the majority
of the evidence for this assumption comes from some of the early designs, such as
Altamont Pass (Erickson et al.
2005
; Smales
2006
; Powlesland
2009
; Smales
2013
), where multiple rows of small turbines were erected. Improved design
including the use of larger turbines at greater spacing has markedly reduced bird
deaths (Drewitt and Langston
2006
). However, where wind farms are sited in core
habitat or migratory pathways, a small number of species still appear to be at risk
of collision mortality (Kingsley and Whittam
2005
; Drewitt and Langston
2006
).
There are few available reports on bird deaths at the small number of operational
wind farms in New Zealand (Powlesland
2009
) and furthermore, there is little
knowledge of New Zealand bird behaviour around operating wind farms or migra-
tory routes.
Hence most wind farm proposals require extensive pre-construction monitor-
ing in order to understand bird behaviour and habitat utilisation within and adja-
cent to the wind farm site. Wind farms require permits, known as 'resource
consents', from local and regional councils for their construction and operation
under New Zealand's primary environmental legislation - the
Resource
Management Act 1991
(RMA). This is largely a 'sustainable development'
enabling act with a focus on avoiding, remedying or mitigating any significant
adverse environmental effects. The RMA does not require a 'no net loss' or biodi-
versity offsetting approach as advocated by the Business and Biodiversity Offsets
Programme.
1
However, many developers are incorporating a no net loss and bio-
diversity offset approach as good practice. The Department of Conservation
(DoC), as well as being responsible for management of public land set aside for
conservation, have an advocacy role for conservation and protection of indige-
nous fauna and flora and their habitats and thus often become involved in resource
consent application consultation processes as a key stakeholder. In addition,
where a resource consent application is considered to be of 'national importance'
the Government can 'call in' the application and have it heard through a 'Board of
Inquiry', effectively 'raising the stakes' for all involved as no opportunity is per-
mitted for the normal second tier Environment Court process, with matters not
resolved being subject to High Court proceedings.
The purpose of this paper is to detail how biodiversity offsetting can be used as
a means to resolve potentially significant turbine strike of a number of migratory
birds associated with the Hauāuru mā raki wind farm (HMR) proposal through the
RMA Board of Inquiry process, where DoC was the key stakeholder involved in
terms of potential ecological effects.
2
