Environmental Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
appropriateness of a development, the mitigation applied and, when required, the
development of biodiversity offsets (such as quantifying collision risk to threatened
birds at proposed wind farm sites). Similar outcomes can also be gained from
qualitative approaches more suitable for the identifi cation of habitats on the ground
through habitat quantifi cation and mapping.
In this paper we illustrate the use of the avian collision risk modelling approach
through its application to the assessment of risk for the New Zealand falcon
Falco
novaeseelandiae
(falcon) and the use of constraints mapping to minimize risk to
signifi cant habitats at two proposed wind farms in the South Island of New Zealand.
Wind Farms in New Zealand
Greenhouse gasses are widely acknowledged as the primary cause of anthropogeni-
cally driven climate change. New Zealand is already committed to renewable energy
with some 75 % of its current supply sourced from renewable resources. Nevertheless,
as part of its response to climate change, the New Zealand Government has adopted
a target for renewable electricity generation of 90 % by 2025 (Government Energy
Strategy August 2011). Currently New Zealand has 16 wind farms in operation with
a combined capacity of 622 MW. Combined with a projected six-fold increase in
wind generated electricity by 2030 (to approximately 3,500 MW) this means that
wind has the potential to contribute signifi cantly to New Zealand's renewable
energy targets. The New Zealand Wind Energy Association predicts that some
20 % of New Zealand's energy requirements by 2030 could be provided by wind
(NZWEA
2011
). In New Zealand, wind energy developments require resource
consent under the
Resource Management Act 1991
involving the preparation of an
Assessment of Environmental Effects to identify and address the risks of a proposal
to the environment, including biodiversity.
Risk Assessment in Environmental Management
Collision Risk Modelling - Quantitative Risk Assessment Methodology
Some birds of prey overseas have been reported as being prone to collision with
wind turbines, some disproportionately so (e.g. Orloff and Flannery
1992
; Percival
2003
). Whilst these are mostly the large soaring raptors or species that hover
(Kingsley and Whittam
2005
), several small species of raptor (e.g. peregrine falcon
Falco peregrinus,
prairie falcons
F. mexicanus
, sparrowhawk
Accipiter nisus
and
lesser kestrels
F. naumanni
) have also been recorded as in collision with wind
turbines (Kingsley and Whittam
2005
). The extent to which raptors collide with
turbines depends on a number of factors such as the species behaviour, as well as the
topography and wind farm design and is very much site dependent (Anderson et al.
2000
; Morrison et al.
2007
).
