User-Centered Systems Design: A Brief History - Foundations for Designing User-Centered Systems - page 41

designer to consider psychological factors systematically and explicitly as they
make usability predictions. Examples of some influential approaches in the world
of human-computer interaction are the Model Human Processor (MHP), GOMS
(which stands for Goals, Operators, Methods, and Selection rules), the Keystroke
Level Model (KLM) (see Card et al. 1983 ), and Programmable User Models
(PUMs: Young et al. 1989 ). We will discuss this further in Chap. 11 on task analysis.
In recent years we have become more and more familiar with concepts such
as Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML). These fields share
roots with these cognitive modeling efforts. It has also been more recently
acknowledged that cognitive models can combine symbolic and sub-symbolic
processes-such as neural net modeling, for example. These hybrid models allow us
to consider the characteristics and constraints of the brain's architecture of neurons
and how the neural underpinnings of cognition impact cognitive processes
(Busemeyer and Dieterich 2010 ) on both a symbolic and sub-symbolic and also an
emergence level.
In the first part of the topic we introduce several ideas and theories about the
way that people behave. These ideas and theories are all encapsulated in cognitive
architectures like ACT- R (Anderson 1993 , 2007 ; Anderson et al. 2004 ) and Soar
(Laird 2012 ; Newell 1990 ). There are still active research communities for both of
these architectures. We introduced ACT-R in Chap. 1 and return to use it to help
summarize design relevant user characteristics in Chap. 14 .
2.2.4 User-Centered and Human-Centered Design
Through the 1980s, user-centered design (UCD, Norman and Draper 1986 ) came
to the fore. User-centered design involves focusing on the user's needs, carrying
out an activity/task analysis as well as a general requirements analysis, carrying
out early testing and evaluation, and designing iteratively. As in the systems
approach, this has a broader focus than the other approaches, but here there is a
greater emphasis on the user and less of a focus on formal methods for require-
ments gathering and specification, and a move from linear, rigid design processes
to a more flexible iterative design methodology.
A related movement, Human-Centered Design (HCD), expanded the focus from
the user in interaction with the system to considering how human capabilities and
characteristics are affected by the system beyond direct interaction with the
interface or system itself. Humans should be seen as the most important element of
information systems and should be designed in. The people context of information
systems must be studied and understood. In more recent work, dimensions such as
gender, race, class, and power are also being explicitly considered with respect to
people's interactions with interactive technologies.
This sensibility surfaces in three ways. First, consideration is given to the fact
that the introduction of a new system engenders changes in the organization of