User-Centered Systems Design: A Brief History - Foundations for Designing User-Centered Systems - page 37

2.2.1.3 Systems Ergonomics
This approach was developed in the USA in the 1950s, and takes a more holistic
approach to understanding users and systems as they work in concert. That is, the
user and the system are seen as a single interacting system that is placed within a
work context. Within this approach, system design involves parallel development
of hardware and personnel issues, with training and selection issues considered.
The ergonomist acts as an integral member of the design team, working throughout
the life cycle to inform the system design. Therefore, in addition to the physical,
behavioral and cognitive considerations of the finished product itself, the human
factors expert (or ''ergonomist'') is involved in: (1) determining the required task
functions (by activity and task analysis in conjunction with the consideration of the
task requirements) and allocating the functions between the user and the system
(2) the design of personnel subsystems, and (3) the design of job descriptions and
job support materials (e.g., manuals and training schemes).
The approach differs from user-centered design as the designers and human
factors experts still view the user as just one part of the system, whereas user-
centered design focuses more on the user's needs and perspective than those of the
system, tasks, and activities per se. In computer system development, for example,
a systems approach would consider the task from a logical, syntactic perspective
and then the computer system implementation issues with a view to allocating
function between the user and the computer system. A user-centered approach
would consider the processing capabilities of the human user and analyze tasks
from the perspective of the user.
2.2.1.4 Cognitive Ergonomics/Cognitive Systems Engineering
Since the mid-1960s and the development of integrated circuits and third gener-
ation computer systems, research has been carried out in user-centered aspects of
data processing, management information systems, information systems, and
information technology. The 1970s saw a rapid increase in the use of computer-
based technologies, resulting in the body of knowledge about user-centered design
methods in areas such as Office Information Systems, industrial process control
systems, and transportation systems. The role of people changed from one of
directly controlling machinery and equipment to one in which they were inter-
acting with computer based technology. In industrial systems this was character-
ized by a change in the operator's role from one of hands-on control to one of
monitoring and supervisory control. This change from doing to thinking meant that
it became more important to understand the way that people perceived problems,
made decisions, and took actions. This led to the development of the field of
cognitive ergonomics, which is nowadays more frequently described as cognitive
systems engineering (CSE), or just cognitive engineering.
Originally developed in the 1970s and early 1980s (Hollnagel and Woods
1983 ), cognitive systems engineering has continued to evolve since that period