Social: Theories and Models - Foundations for Designing User-Centered Systems - page 264

A view of the stages that groups go through by Tuckman ( 1965 ) and then picked
up by everyone (partly because it is useful and we think partly because the stages
have fun names) notes that groups go through forming (orientation/testing/depen-
dence), storming (conflict), norming (group cohesion), and performing (functional
role-relatedness). This type of stage theory of group formation helps with defining
group behavior, but more importantly makes predictions about how to help groups
work better together. For example, it would be useful for teachers, managers, and
group members to encourage activities that help groups transition through the early
stages more productively and quickly. There are multiple ways to help groups form,
from helping people meet to helping the groups know their tasks. Norming, for
example, can be assisted by providing standards and behavior to compare.
9.4.3 Soft Systems Methodology
Soft Systems Methodology (SSM, Checkland 1981 ; Checkland and Scholes, 1999 )
has its roots in systems engineering, and builds on ideas from action research. It
was developed as a move away from thinking about systems in hard engineering
terms. So, instead of talking about social systems and technical systems, SSM
treats purposeful action as a system: logically linked activities are connected
together as a whole, and the emergent property of the whole is its purposefulness.
SSM is based around a cycle of four activities:
1. The problematic situation that requires action to improve it is identified
2. Models of purposeful activity that are judged to be relevant to the identified
situation are developed. Each of these models is built on the particular
worldview of the different stakeholders
3. The models are used for structuring discussions about the problematic situation.
The goal is to find changes that are desirable and culturally feasible in that
situation
4. The actions that are needed to improve the situation are defined and, perhaps,
implemented.
Systems development usually starts with activity 1, although the other activities
will often be carried out in parallel, and these can feed back into the other activities
in the process. The discussions in activity 3, for example, may lead to an improved
understanding of some of the more subtle aspects of the problematic situation
(activity 1), which may lead to changes in the set of models developed in activity 2.
One of the key features of SSM is its focus on developing an understanding of
the problem (SSM uses the term problematic situation, which is more general).
This understanding takes into account the roles, responsibilities, and concerns of
the stakeholders that are associated with the particular problem. The understanding
of the problem provides the basis for the solution, which again takes into account
stakeholders' differing viewpoints. SSM explicitly acknowledges that the final