Agriculture Reference
In-Depth Information
land can significantly add to the emissions of carbon dioxide, the main greenhouse
gas, and as a result reduce the benefit of renewing oxygen and providing cleaner air.
Elevated temperatures have been recorded in urban landscapes devoid of vegeta-
tion (Bowler et al. 2010 ). In addition urban landscapes lacking trees, turf and other
vegetation, and that are overcrowded and isolated from the natural environment, are
often given as causes for aggression, depression, and stress (Bennett and Swasey
1996 ; Lohr et al. 1996 ) in modern society.
The loss of biodiversity is part of the pattern which accompanies climate change
and the scientific evidence suggests that this threat is a global phenomenon. Hajko-
wicz ( 2012 ) reports that globally biodiversity continues to be in rapid decline Re-
search shows that long-term environmental conditions can play a significant role
in defining the function and distribution of plants and animals in a tropical forest
landscape (Stork and Turton 2008 ). Climate change, increasing world population,
and unprecedented urban growth are the major drivers of changing biodiversity
patterns (Prance et al. 2014 ).
Water sources, another natural resource, are important for growth and food se-
curity; however some are not sustainable, with some large river systems no longer
reaching the sea (Postel 2010 ). Continued dry conditions have been shown to affect
both rural and urban environments and communities. Local government agencies
must now seek alternative water sources, other than potable water, for irrigation
purposes. The concepts of “water footprints” and “virtual water” are now under
discussion providing better understanding of the use of scarce water supplies (Anon
2012 ). The impact of invasive plant, animal and microbial species, which have
demonstrated environmental, social, economic and health consequences was dis-
cussed by Rotherham and Lambert ( 2011 ).
An emerging conflict as described by Markham ( 2013 ) provides an example
involving the regional islands of the Pacific region. An increasing population, prin-
cipally arising from increasing tourist numbers, a growth in urban migration, poor
land-use planning, alternating cycles of El Niño and La Niña weather patterns that
bring periods of drought or excessive rainfall that last for several years, shortages of
fresh water, contamination from rising sea water levels, and challenges with exotic
and invasive nematodes and diseases are resulting in a crisis leading to non-sustain-
able production in the Pacific region. The challenges and solutions in seeking sus-
tainable development involve plant changes such as the introduction of improved
cultivars. Social changes require the recognition of the importance of soil fertility,
organic matter production or 'conservation agriculture' and introducing farmers to
integrated pest management (IPM). This must also include introducing simple drip
irrigation systems that counter climate-related problems and sustain soil health.
Plants for Good and Evil
Fundamentally plants impinge on peoples' lives initially as a source of food and
then as society develops they provide far wider and more valuable products. The
eminent Russian geneticist and plant breeder Nikolay Vavilov ( 1994 ) described the
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