Environmental Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
ect global trade, these issues are not
single-mode concerns for oceangoing ships. International trade needs to be considered as
an intermodal/multimodal network responding to common drivers di
Especially where these operational changes may a
ff
erently than other
mobile sources (autos) and coupled with larger sustainability issues such as land use,
resource extraction, labor and population. Within this context, both technological and
operational measures can achieve more sustainable goods movement involving marine
transportation.
ff
Summary
Considering mitigation options involves valuing and comparing their characteristics in
terms of decision criteria that may vary among stakeholders facing competing objectives.
For example, when emissions reduction is clearly merited for reasons other than cost (e.g.
health-based impacts), the valuation of alternatives may require a cost-e
ectiveness eval-
uation to select the most preferred options; however, considering whether action is
merited on an economic basis may require a more di
ff
cult full accounting of direct and
indirect costs and bene
fi
ts. With regard to cost-e
ff
ectiveness, studies show that shipping is
among the least regulated and most cost-e
ective transportation sectors with regard to
NOx and SO
x
control (Skjølsvik et al., 2000; Corbett and Fischbeck, 2002, 2001; Corbett,
1999; Friedrich et al., 2007). Ongoing and recent studies are quantifying impacts of
current and forecast
ff
fl
eet activity in terms of air quality, environmental impacts (e.g.
acidi
fi
cation), human health and climate change, many being led or funded in Europe.
Notes
1.
Air freight is also a mode connecting intercontinental logistics. Air freight tends to move the highest-value,
most time-sensitive freight; while a significant mode in trade value, aircraft move much less global freight
by volume, and at significant energy per unit shipped.
2.
This discussion is adapted or excerpted from the author's work published in the
Encyclopedia of Energy
and
other work (Giuliano and Godwin, 2006; Vickerman, 2006; EIA, 2003).
3.
This section is adapted or excerpted from other work (Giuliano and Godwin, 2006; Vickerman, 2006; EIA,
2003; Mercator Transport Group et al., 2005).
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