Environmental Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
Table 2.1
Overview of types of ocean shipping pollution
Episodic environmental events
Routine environmental events
Vessel-based
Oil spills
Engine air emissions
Ocean dumping
Volatile cargoes emissions (petroleum)
Sewage discharges
Invasive species introductions
Oily wastewater
(ballast water/hull fouling)
Vessel collisions
Hull coating toxics releases
Ship-strikes with marine life
Underwater noise
Port-based
Dredging
Stormwater runoff
Port expansion
Vessel wake erosion
Ship construction, breaking
Cargo-handling air emissions
intensities are a function of
cargo payload-to-capacity ratios,
and fuel economy
di
erences among the engines used by the modes (Mantzos and Capros, 2006; ECDGET
and Eurostat, 2006; Davis, 2003).
Shipping and rail are not only among the least costly modes of transportation, they are
also the most energy e
ff
cient (with some exceptions generally proportional with high vessel
speed and low service capacity). Because fuel costs can represent between 20 and 60 percent
of shipping costs, operators have strong economic motivation to operate ships e
ciently
and to employ propulsion technologies that reduce fuel consumption per cargo tkm.
However, a consequence of marine engine technologies is increased air pollution.
Among freight modes, waterborne transportation has been shown to cause signi
cant air
pollution locally in port communities, add to long-range pollution transport in coastal
regions of heavy trade, and contribute to climate change on a global scale (Skjølsvik et al.,
2000; Corbett and Koehler, 2004; 2003; Capaldo et al., 1999; Corbett and Fischbeck,
1997; Corbett et al., 1999; Endresen et al., 2003; Kasibhatla et al., 2000; Lawrence and
Crutzen, 1999). Oceangoing shipping is also the least regulated freight mode, at least for
air pollution.
Together with ocean shipping, emissions associated with other freight modes are
signi
fi
cant (Skjølsvik et al., 2000; OECD, and Hecht, 1997; IEA, 1998). According to the
US EPA, heavy-duty truck, rail and water transport together account for more than 25
percent of US CO
2
emissions, about 50 percent of NO
x
emissions, and nearly 40 percent
of PM (particulate matter) emissions from all mobile sources (EPA, 2005a; 2005b). In
Europe, these modes generate more than 30 percent of the transportation sector's CO
2
emissions (Bates et al., 2001).
fi
Fleet energy and emissions
2
Most energy in marine transportation is used by cargo or passenger transport vessels -
ships that move cargo or passengers from one place to another in trade. A pro
fi
le of the
internationally registered
eet of ships greater than 100 gross tons is shown in Table 2.2
(LMIS, 2002). Transport vessels account for almost 60 percent of the ships and nearly
80 percent of the enery demand of the internationally registered
fl
fl
eet (not including
