Environmental Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
As the relative size of type I and II errors will itself depend on trade
fl
ows and restrictions,
trade policy and risk assessment must be considered in tandem.
Finally, we raise again the problem of imperfect enforcement. The trade and invasives
literature uniformly assumes that all imports are legal. This is questionable. In 1999,
o
cials seized 41 000 pounds of illegally imported plant and animal materials from retail-
ers, wholesalers and such in the Los Angeles area (Kreith and Golino, 2003). As noted
above, it seems theoretically possible that strict pre-emptive policies may actually raise
NIS damages; policy-makers would bene
fi
t from advice along this dimension.
Notes
1.
Many NIS are bene
cial: corn, wheat and rice are all crop plants that were introduced into the USA. This
review is concerned with non-bene
fi
fi
cial NIS.
2.
Some species are intentionally released directly into the wild: European starlings were introduced as part of
a private campaign to establish in North America the di
erent birds listed in Shakespeare's writings (Cabe,
1998). Asian kudzu was planted by the US Soil Erosion Service and Civilian Conservation Corp; it was
many decades before its approval for erosion control was revoked as a result of the plant's invasiveness
(Forseth and Innis, 2004).
ff
3.
For more general reviews of control and prevention strategies, see Olson (2006) for terrestrial invasives and
Lovell et al. (2006) for aquatics.
4.
Tu and Beghin (2006) extend the analysis to allow for intra-industry trade. They
fi
nd that imports of
di
erentiated products needn't crowd out production, while intra-industry liberalization tends to increase
invasive species damage.
ff
5.
A number of empirical studies have examined the e
ff
ect of phytosanitary barriers to trade in agriculture.
James and Anderson (1998)
fi
nd that Australia's ban on banana imports is not justi
fi
ed if the welfare of
Australian consumers is considered. Calvin and Krisso
nd that Japan's phytosanitary restrictions
on imports of US apples (US apples are assumed to be perfect substitutes for Japanese apples) protect
Japanese producers at the expense of social welfare. Yue et al. (2006) assume that Japanese and US apples
are imperfect substitutes and
ff
(1998)
fi
fi
nd that Japanese phytosanitary restrictions had little impact on US apple
exports to Japan.
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ff
