Environmental Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
permitted entry into all states except California, Florida and Hawaii. As of 2007, avoca-
dos can be imported into all 50 states (ERS, 2006). Import bans are imposed on export-
ing countries following the discovery of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) or foot
and mouth disease (Josling et al., 2004). Exports of US fruits and vegetables (including
apples, cherries, citrus, pomegranates, potatoes, raspberries and stone fruit) to a variety
of countries are banned due to phytosanitary concerns (FAS, 2005).
Product standards
The International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) approved an International
Standard of Phytosanitary Measure for wood packing material (IPPC, 2006). Pallets must
now be heat-treated, treated with methyl bromide, or replaced by plastic pallets if they are
used for goods traded internationally (Mumford, 2002).
Process standards
In the USA, chemical treatments may include applications of fumigants such as methyl
bromide, while non-chemical treatments can include cold treatment, heat treatment and
irradiation (USDA, 2002). In 2002, APHIS issued a
nal rule allowing irradiation as a
phytosanitary treatment of fruits and vegetables imported into the USA (Federal
Register, 2002). In April 2007, the USA began to allow imports of irradiated mangoes
imported from India; before this, Indian mangos were banned entry into the USA
(http://www.aphis.usda.gov/newsroom/hot_issues/indian_mango/indian_mango.shtml).
The International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships Ballast, Water
& Sediments and the US National Aquatic Invasive Species Act regulate the discharge of
ballast water from transoceanic vessels. The USA requires that ships discharge ballast water
in the ocean before entering the Great Lakes (Costello et al., 2007). Between 2001 and 2005,
the USDA had a 'winter shipping only' restriction on imports of Mexican avocados (Josling
et al., 2004). Currently, all pet birds imported into the USA (from non-US and non-
Canadian origin) require a 30-day quarantine in a USDA animal import quarantine facil-
ity at the owner's expense (http://www.aphis.usda.gov/NCIE/pet-bird-non-us.html).
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Criminal and civil liability
Releasing NIS, either intentionally or through carelessness, may be punishable by law. The
UK's Wildlife and Countryside Act of 1981 renders the 'intentional or negligent intro-
duction of an alien animal or subsequent release “of an already introduced animal” ' a
criminal o
ense (Shine et al., 2000, p. 81). 'In Poland, any person may bring a civil action
for damages against a person responsible for an introduction . . ..' (ibid., p. 82).
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A taxonomy of NIS characteristics
When and where particular instruments are appropriate depends on the characteristics of
the NIS problem at hand. To this end we provide a taxonomy of NIS characteristics. In
this section we also provide an overview of the research useful in matching policy design
with NIS characteristics. In addition to the literature speci
c to NIS policy, we include the
literature on trade policy in the presence of externalities, and regulation in the presence
of uncertainty and asymmetric information. As outlined above, there are four character-
istics that loosely de
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ne individual NIS problems: observability, separability, traceability
and predictability.
