Environmental Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
5.
See Boyce (2000), reprinted in Boyce (2002, ch. 2).
6.
Thus Mol (2001, p. 211) writes that economic mechanisms 'will always fall short in fully articulating envi-
ronmental interests and pushing environmental reforms, if they are not constantly paralleled and propelled
by environmental institutions and environmental movements'.
7.
Both community pressure and
rms outsource to unbranded
suppliers. In a study of northern Mexico, Gallagher (2004) found that outsourcing by US
fi
rm responsiveness may di
ff
er when foreign
fi
fi
rms had adverse
environmental impacts.
8.
For examples, see Conroy (2007).
9.
There is an obvious analogy with labor standards; see Singh and Zammit (2004). Indeed environmental
protectionism is sometimes depicted by its critics as a smokescreen for other protectionist interests (see,
e.g., Bhagwati, 1993).
10.
'Ecological dumping' need not be intentional. Rauscher (1994, p. 825) proposes a more restrictive
de
nition: 'a scenario in which environmental standards are tighter in the non-tradables than in the trad-
ables sector.' While this comes closer to the notion of dumping as a deliberate instrument of trade policy,
it is possible that inter-sectoral disparities in environmental standards are not wholly intentional. In any
event, proponents of environmental protectionism are more concerned with the e
fi
ff
ects of ecological
dumping than its causes.
11.
Low and Yeats (1992) found a rising share of pollution-intensive exports from developing countries (par-
ticularly in Southeast Asia) in the period 1965-88, albeit from a fairly small base. Extending this analysis
to the period 1992-2000, Bouvier (2003)
nds that this trend has continued, with some Eastern European
countries also emerging as major exporters.
fi
12.
If this is accompanied by declining terms of trade for environment-intensive products, the result could be
both 'environmental improvement and economic growth in the North and environmental deterioration and
economic stagnation in the South' (Muradian and Martinez-Alier, 2001, p. 286).
13.
See also http://www.slowfood.com/.
14.
Maizels (1992, p. 189; 1995, p. 108) reports that substitution by synthetics reduced the developed market-
economy countries' consumption of natural raw materials by 2.9 percent per year from
1963-65 to 1971-73, 0.9% per year from 1971-73 to 1978-80, and 1.2 percent per year from 1978-80 to
1984-86.
15.
For details, see Boyce (1995).
16.
For further discussion, see Boyce (1996).
17.
For accounts of the social impacts in rural Mexico, see Weiner (2002) and Becker (2003).
18.
So far, however, relatively few
campesinos
appear to have abandoned maize cultivation, in part because of
the lack of other economic opportunities; see Ackerman et al. (2003).
19.
For further discussion of the value of
in situ
(in-the-
fi
eld) crop genetic diversity, see Brush (2000) and
Thrupp (1998).
20.
For literature surveys, see Bullard (1994), Szasz and Meuser (1997), Bowen (2001) and Pastor (2003).
21.
'Power' here plays a role analogous to that of 'in
fl
uence' in Becker's (1983) model of
fi
scal policy.
22.
See, e.g., Been (1994). In a longitudinal study in southern California, one of the few to examine empiri-
cally the siting versus 'move-in' question, Pastor et al. (2001) found strong evidence of disproportionate
siting.
23.
See, for example, Bouwes
et al
. (2003) and Ash and Fetter (2002).
24.
Where
b
i
and
π
i
are negatively correlated,
the result will be 'too little'
environmental degrad-
ation, by the usual e
ciency standard, rather than too much. For discussion, see Boyce (2002, pp. 37-38,
51).
25.
For further discussion of the impacts of income inequality on environmental quality, see Boyce (2007).
26.
For a review of the evidence, see Sutcli
ff
e (2003).
27.
As noted above, the power of those who bear environmental costs relative to those who bene
t from cost
externalization can also be described in terms of their ability to put an implicit or explicit 'price' on envi-
ronmental degradation.
fi
28.
See Boyce (2002, chs 2 and 4).
References
Ackerman, Frank et al. (2003), 'Free trade, corn, and the environment: environmental impacts of US-Mexico
corn trade under NAFTA', Global Development and Environment Institute Working Paper 03-06, Medford,
MA: Tufts University, http://ase.tufts.edu/gdae/Pubs/wp/03-06-NAFTACorn.PDF.
Ash, Michael and T. Robert Fetter (2004), 'Who lives on the wrong side of the environmental tracks?
Evidence from the EPA's risk-screening environmental indicators model',
Social Science Quarterly
,
85
(2),
441-62.
Barrett, Scott (2000), 'Trade and environment: local versus multilateral reforms',
Environment and Development
