Biology Reference
In-Depth Information
Two reviews by
Reilly et al. (2003)
and more recently by
Raj and Kumar
(2010)
have summarized that childhood obesity is closely associated with
numerous comorbidities in children and adolescents, including metabolic,
cardiovascular, psychological, neurological, orthopedic, pulmonary, hepatic,
and renal disorders.
Cali and Caprio (2008)
stated that many obese children
and adolescents already manifest some metabolic disturbances (impaired
glucose regulation, hypertension, dyslipidemia, and fatty liver disease) with-
out knowing it, placing them at a higher risk for the development of early
morbidity. In addition, these children and adolescents are also found to be
more susceptible to psychosocial problems than their normal weight coun-
terparts, such as stigmatization and discrimination by peers, lower levels
of self-esteem, anxiety, and depression (
Daniels et al., 2005; Dockray,
Susman, & Dorn, 2009; Vila et al., 2004
)
. Many studies have reported that
overweight and obesity are associated with significant decrements in overall
quality of life among these young populations (
Stern et al., 2007; Williams,
Wake, Hesketh, Maher, & Watrs, 2005
)
, and these decrements were some-
what comparable to those of children with cancer undergoing chemother-
apy (
Schwimmer, Burkwinkle, &Varni, 2003
). Moreover, current evidence
also confirms the persistence of childhood and adolescence obesity into adult
life, and this factor is associated with significantly increased rates of prema-
ture death, morbidity, and mortality later in adulthood (
Franks et al., 2010;
2.3. Factors contributing to overweight and obesity
Childhood obesity is a multifactorial disorder that involves complex inter-
actions between genetic, metabolic, neuroendocrine, environmental, socio-
cultural, and psychological factors (
Raj & Kumar, 2010
).
Ang, Wee, Poh,
and Ismail (2013)
have critically reviewed the major risk factors involved
in the etiology of childhood obesity, and they summarized these determi-
nants into two categories: modifiable factors (socioeconomic status, diet,
PA, sleep, and parental determinants) and nonmodifiable factors (genetics,
ethnic differences, gestational weight, and intrauterine conditions).
In addition, PF has recently been suggested as another potential factor that
may be associated with the rising obesity rate among children and adoles-
Psarra, & Sidossis, 2005
).
WHO (2013)
has stated that the adverse imbalance
between energy intake and EE, which mainly results from the over-
consumption of energy-dense foods and an increase in sedentary behavior,
