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had an important role in the effect of protein and fat. A relation between
protein levels, waist circumference, and fiber intake was observed whereas
the effect of fat was more dependent on fasting plasma insulin levels of the
subjects. Several mechanisms are responsible for the effect of fat and protein.
Some of these are the delayed gastric emptying, effect of GIP and GLP-1 on
gastric emptying and insulin secretion, or due to specific amino acids effect
on insulin secretion.
Almond is a food rich in monounsaturated fatty acids and fiber well
known to have beneficial effects on lipid profile. Consumption of 10 g/
day raw almonds for 4 weeks has been shown to reduce fasting and postpran-
dial blood glucose response in type 2 diabetic women. The positive effects
on lowering fasting and postprandial glycemia were evident from week 1
and continued to week 4 ( Choudhary et al., 2009 ). Jenkins et al. reported
a decreased risk of oxidative damage to proteins resulting from the low gly-
cemic effect of almonds. Healthy subjects consumed 60 g raw unblanched
almonds with white bread and compared their postprandial glycemic
response with a rice meal and potato meal. The addition of almonds reduced
the postprandial glycemic response to bread along with supplying additional
antioxidants in the meal ( Jenkins et al., 2006 ) .
Fermentation is a process that affects glycemic response of foods. Milk
and milk products have been shown to produce varied glycemic response
depending on the extent of fermentation that they are subjected to. This
is due to the presence of acids such as lactic acid in the fermented products.
Ostman, Liljeberg Elmst˚hl, Bj¨ rck (2001) compared the glycemic response
of fermented, pickled, and nonfermented milk products with white bread as
a reference food. Milk products themselves show reduced glycemic response
due to the presence of the sugar lactose, which is not easily digested and
converted into glucose. The milk products showed reduced GI and II com-
pared to the white bread but there was no difference between the fermented
and regular milk products. But the presence of acid in the form of yogurt and
pickled cucumber reduced the GI and II of white bread. The insulinotropic
effect of milk and milk products may be explained by certain types of amino
acids present in the milk that can influence insulin response.
All milk products generally have the property to reduce glycemic
response compared to starchy foods. In a recent study comparing human
and bovine milk with reconstituted bovine whey and casein drinks and
white bread, all the milk products showed reduced glycemic response
( Gunnerud, Holst, ¨ stman, & Bj¨ rck, 2012 ) . The authors were expecting
to see a change in the response to human milk due to its high whey protein
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