Biology Reference
In-Depth Information
for developed countries. For example, an outbreak of Cryptosporidium in the
water supply in Sydney, Australia in 1998 cost US$45 million in emergency
measures, despite the fact that there was no actual link to increased disease
indicated during this time. 18 Similarly, a further challenge that remains for
high-income countries is the lack of a robust disease surveillance system for
these waterborne pathogens. 18
Variations in legislation for water quality and supply across the world
are often driven by current need or the need to rectify previous outbreaks
of waterborne illness. For example, Cryptosporidium testing is carried out
routinely in both the United States and the UK where regulations ensure
it is done. However, in some parts of Europe and elsewhere in the world,
there is no regulated screening system and outbreaks of Cryptosporidium and
other waterborne pathogens are a considerable issue. The following section
provides a brief outline on the water industry in other parts of the world,
where information has been found to be available:
11.2.1. Europe
Water quality standards are derived separately by countries but tend to fol-
low WHO guidelines.
The Netherlands : The Netherlands has 11 drinking water suppliers and
two bulk suppliers, all represented by the Association of Dutch Water
Companies. All these companies, except one (Waternet), are limited liabil-
ity companies associated with certain municipalities and provincial bod-
ies. 19 The regional government determines prices but there is no formal
framework for setting them. A previously voluntary benchmarking system
that has become obligatory for the suppliers has been enforced under the
Drinking Water Act in 2008. 19 In general, the operation of the water sector
is similar to that in England and Wales, although a larger proportion of sup-
ply is gained from groundwater by Dutch companies than here.
Portugal : The water sector has been regulated by the IRAR since 2000,
and they are responsible for local distribution and retail functions. The aver-
age water company size is small compared to England and Wales, with the
average population served standing at 76,000. 19
11.2.2. North America
USA : The United States has a large number of water systems that vary con-
siderably in size, ownership and regulation. Federal policy drives the quality
of drinking water but the regulation of systems depends on who owns them
and where they are located. 19 The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
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