Emerging practice with games-based learning - Teaching with Technologies: The Essential Guide - page 64

contemporary learners with dry, didactic methods, which can be ameliorated by gam-
ing (Van Eck 2006). The effectiveness of games is due to their underlying architecture,
which imitates the key components of learning. In analysing the essential principles
of learning, Oblinger (2004, cited in Douch et al. 2010) highlights eight principles that
apply to games:
· Active learning
· Assessment
· Feedback
· Individualization
· Motivation
· Scaffolding
· Social and transfer.
Gaming as a classroom activity is likely to be successful, because it has social status
(with peer credibility) and psychological interest with individual motivation. See Table
4.1, which outlines the eight principles of learning that are utilised in games design.
Theories of learning and digital games
Miller and Robertson (2010) argue that the explanations that account for the popu-
larity of gaming can be identified in psychological and socio-cultural theories. The
most cited psychological theory is that of 'flow' from Csikszentmihalyi (1990) (in
Douch et al. 2010; Miller and Robertson 2010; Prensky 2006; Spring-Keller 2010). It is
the notion of 'flow' that explains why so many hours are spent immersed in complex
computer games by children of all ages and both genders.
'Flow' describes a subjective, positive state that is achieved when someone is
completely absorbed in what they are doing. Csikszentmihalyi (1990) indentified
the essential characteristics of flow as high levels of concentration, complete engage-
ment in the activity and full attention in reaching targets. Crucial to this is a match
between ability and challenge, alongside receiving feedback on progress that enables
one to adapt rapidly, modify responses, which contribute towards a greater sense
of personal control. It is this level of complete absorption in the game (of 'losing
oneself', 'being in the zone', where 'time flies') that characterizes 'flow' with games
(Miller and Robertson 2010).
The key is the balance between the learner's skills and the challenges of the game,
which results in the learner being so utterly focused and engaged. Essentially, what
creates the state of flow with digital gaming is worthwhile goals, decision-making and
adaptivity (Douch et al. 2010: 19). Decisions have to be made to achieve goals. The
consequence of those decisions is often instantaneous, and this allows the player to
advance a level. There is a clear sense of improvement as the player's ability matches
the challenge of the game. With respect to learning theories where the feedback is
immediate and the challenge achievable - this can be understood through Bruner's
(1960) concept of 'scaffolding' and Vygotsky's (1978) theory of the zone of approxi-
mate development (ZPD).