Information Technology Reference
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teachers can see that it is similarly effective. Having examined teachers' professional
development in general terms, the next step is to evaluate specific models of profes-
sional development for technology.
Models of continuing professional development for teachers about technology
Historically, the preferred model of technology in-service training has consistently
been that of 'cascade' , and this has been hugely unsuccessful (Russell 1995). Typi-
cally, this model has three components: a session with a focus on the innovation
itself, followed by the teacher being responsible for translating the skills and knowl-
edge gained into the context of the classroom and curriculum, and concluding with
a responsibility for dissemination, consisting of the teacher reporting back to col-
leagues on the skills, knowledge and implementation of technology in the classroom.
As Casey (1996) observes:
We derive little benefit by 'wowing' teachers with demonstrations of new
computing technology if we fail to connect its use to the curriculum. Teachers
may resist changing to a practice that someone outside the classroom decides
is of importance for teachers to do inside the classroom.
(Casey 1996: 16)
During the 1990s and 2000s the 'ICT coordinator' emerged as a key figure in many
schools, providing both formal training and informal, day-to-day support and trou-
bleshooting (EDSI 1997; NCET 1995; Pachler 2011). Having warned of the need to
change teachers' beliefs before they adopt new methods and the difficulties in effect-
ing even slow changes in teachers' beliefs, Veen (1993) identified four consequences
of this for technology CPD. First, it must fit with the existing beliefs of teachers.
Second, a differentiated 'bottom-up' approach, appropriate to different subject areas,
is needed. Third, change will be slow, since it requires planning and leaders must
persist; and fourth, it should be school-based.
What are the underlying theories of learning inherent in these models of in-
service training for technology? Rhodes (1989) identified two different approaches to
technology CPD for teachers based on contrasting theories of teachers as learners: the
deficit model and the skills model. In courses based on the deficit model, the primary
barrier to overcome was a teacher's fear of the innovation; the emphasis is on giving
the teacher confidence in and with the technology, with educational issues assuming
a secondary role. However, Rhodes (1989) argues that this model de-skills teachers,
reducing them to novices and makes the new techniques seem distinct from their
normal work. Conversely, the skills model 'acknowledges teachers as experts . . . the
barrier to innovation is seen as psychological . . . and the emphasis is on encouraging
teachers to use the technology in the classroom and then return in order to discuss
educational outcomes' (Rhodes 1989: 5).
However, both are 'deficit' in the sense that they regard teachers as being 'barri-
ers' to be addressed rather than as experts willing to engage with new ideas for teach-
ing with technology.
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