Sustainability Issues in Biomass Feedstock Production: A Policy Perspective - Engineering and Science of Biomass Feedstock Production and Provision - page 228

9.1 Introduction

Regeneration of plant and forest materials constitutes “renewability” in the strictest
sense of the word. The ultimate defi nition of what a sustainable agricultural system
should look like varies. One of the most commonly cited defi nitions of sustainabil-
ity is a system that supplies a growing population with resources without destroying
the environment within which they are used and provides resources for the present
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs [ 1 ].
Demand for energy biomass, however, has led nongovernmental organizations
(NGOs), industries with interests contrary to biofuels (e.g., food and feed), and even
governments to question whether bioenergy policies truly result in environmental
and societal improvements befi tting of their “bio,” “renewable,” and “green” labels
[ 2 ]. In 2008, a vocal cadre of academics struck a blow to sustainability assumptions
about biofuels [ 3 ]. They argued that greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reductions may
be dramatically overestimated because of market-induced indirect land-use change
(ILUC), in some cases making the footprint of biofuels worse than petroleum. NGOs
jumped on the bandwagon with distress calls about fragile ecosystems threatened by
overharvesting, particularly in forests. Other environmental and social concerns
were added to the agenda of biofuels' opponents, including water and air pollution,
loss of soil productivity, loss of land tenure/rights, and labor and employment.
In response to these concerns, bioenergy laws and private standards have evolved
to make biofuels more “sustainable” from both a GHG and “other” sustainability
perspective. Generalized environmental and social policies, too, exist to fi ll in where
gaps in bioenergy laws occur. Challenges remain, however, in implementing biofu-
els' sustainability standards, such as enabling farmers to practically and economi-
cally use practice and measurement tools, reconciling divergent standards among
countries, and solving the seemingly intractable “food versus fuel” dilemma. This
chapter examines sustainability requirements for biomass-to-bioenergy that have
emerged through the convergence of energy, environmental, agricultural, and for-
estry policies, and focuses on core “sustainability” defi nitions in United States,
European Union, Brazil, and private policies. It concludes by examining harmoni-
zation and efforts to address perhaps the most formidable sustainability challenge in
policy—biomass' competition with food.

9.2 Sustainable Biomass Laws and Policies

The past 10 years have seen a signifi cant proliferation of bioenergy policies, and as
they have evolved, more and more focus has been placed on accounting for the
potential environmental and social impacts of biomass-based fuels. Initial concern
was whether from a lifecycle perspective biofuels deliver true GHG emission reduc-
tions. The United States, California, and the EU all have codifi ed some form of GHG
measurement for biofuels. Policies increasingly contemplate biomass' other possible
effects on air, water, and soil quality, and biodiversity, as well as fair labor practices
and property rights in the wake of potential land grabs in undeveloped countries.