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sistance (guerrilla warfare) deny victory
to the French invaders.
1814-19
Independence movement in Spanish colo-
nies (beginning as early as 1810 in Mex-
ico) grows out of long-standing grievances
against the mother country and the op-
portunities for local initiatives presented
by the Peninsular War. Ferdinand, fear-
ing loss of revenue from the American
dependencies and encouraged by anti-
revolutionary governments in Europe,
dispatches troops to fight the colonial
rebels.
1810-11
The struggle between the Anglo-Portuguese
troops and their Spanish allies on the one
side and the French on the other contin-
ues to sway back and forth.
1812
An assembly loyal to Ferdinand VII meets at
Cádiz in the unoccupied region of the
south and proclaims a constitution. This
document—a landmark in Spanish and,
indeed European, history—gives the first
written guarantees of popular representa-
tion, ministerial responsibility, and free-
dom of speech and assembly. It represents
the first upsurge of liberalism in Spain—a
delayed response to the revolutionary
spirit of the age. Meanwhile, in a series of
hard-fought battles, Wellington drives the
French northward, forcing Joseph
Bonaparte to abandon Madrid and retreat
to the line of the Ebro River. By the end
of 1813 the French have withdrawn from
Spain. Wellington pursues them across
the Pyrenees but leaves his Spanish allies
behind, fearing that they would “take a
terrible revenge” upon their enemies.
1820
Mutiny of troops (at Cádiz) who refuse to
embark for South America. They march
on Madrid, are joined by other rebels,
and enter the capital in triumph. Ferdi-
nand is compelled to restore the constitu-
tion and rule under liberal domination
until 1823.
Portuguese revolution, inspired by the up-
rising in Spain, overthrows the regency.
This council has governed Portugal since
the flight of the royal family to Brazil in
1807 and cooperated with the British
during the Peninsular War. The royal
family's preference for Brazil over Portu-
gal as a residence had created increasing
tension since the end of the war. The new
king, John VI (who succeeded his mother
in 1816), has elevated Brazil to equal
stature with Portugal and shows no inter-
est in returning to Lisbon.
1814
Ferdinand VII returns from exile in France,
thus marking the end of the Peninsular
War, and begins a reign as king of Spain
that will last until 1833. Although he has
promised to respect the 1812 constitu-
tion, he soon rallies conservative forces,
including the aristocracy and the church,
and restores absolutism. During the next
six years a series of revolts by civilian and
military liberals is crushed.
1822
The liberals, now controlling Portugal, insti-
tute a constitution largely modeled on
that of the liberal regime in Spain. John
VI is urged to return to Portugal.
During his time in Brazil the king has come
to understand the complex nature of
 
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