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northern area having become the indepen-
dent Dutch Republic. In the course of the
struggle the old issues with France flared up
once more, and by the 1580s Spain was
intervening on the Catholic side in that
country's civil war. The revolt of the Neth-
erlands also intersected with Anglo-Spanish
rivalries. Tensions between Philip and Eliz-
abeth I of England arose from her ambitions
in the Spanish-ruled Western Hemisphere
and her persecution of Catholics, particu-
larly in Ireland, where Philip supplied
covert support to the Irish resistance. By
1585 Elizabeth had dispatched English “vol-
unteers” to aid the Dutch and was recog-
nized as the leader of northern European
opposition to Philip's championship of the
Counter-Reformation. In 1588 Philip dis-
patched the “Invincible A
RMADA
” to invade
and conquer England. This great fleet of
warships and troop transports was part of a
grand design that included a decisive blow
against the Dutch rebels and the replace-
ment of the French king by a Catholic pro-
tégé of Spain. The plan proved too unwieldy
and failed in all its dimensions. In the end
Philip was obliged to make peace with
France, accept a de facto division of the
Netherlands, and leave the unresolved con-
test with England to his successor.
If the north proved unconquerable,
Philip could at least congratulate himself on
his political and religious mastery of the
south. He completed this during the 1580s
by establishing himself as king of Portugal.
When the last legitimate member of the
A
VIZ
dynasty died in 1580, Philip laid claim
to the crown, citing his mother's royal Por-
tuguese lineage. Although some armed
opposition continued for a few years, he
was able to establish himself as king of Por-
tugal and, therefore, as ruler of that coun-
try's colonial possessions in Africa, Asia,
and the Americas. The “personal union” of
these two nations that had pioneered in the
building of colonial empires made Philip
ruler of the greatest realm the world had
ever seen. There were even suggestions that
he should assume the title of “emperor of
the Indies.” Although Philip never took his
overseas possessions as seriously as those in
Europe, they continued to grow through-
out his reign as explorers and conquistado-
res built upon the foundations laid during
his father's time. Their principal importance
in these later days was as a source of pre-
cious metals to finance Philip's wars and
grand diplomacy.
According to contemporary observers
Philip II derived little visible enjoyment
from his vast powers. He was invariably
described as gloomy, grim, and so dedicated
to his work that he spared scarcely a
moment from the business of government.
His popular nickname, “the Prudent,” was
a reflection less of sage caution than of
chronic indecisiveness. Reluctant to act in
matters that were of tremendous impor-
tance, he often delayed until the time was
no longer ripe for action. Yet, suspicious of
other people's motives, he sought little
advice and read all the government docu-
ments and annotated all the dispatches for
himself, becoming less of a monarch than
the chief clerk of an empire.
What happiness that did penetrate the
obsessive environment that Philip created
for himself in his great monastery-palace of
E
L
E
SCORIAL
was provided by his family. His
first wife, a Portuguese princess, had died
soon after the birth of their only child. This
son, Charles, for whom he naturally enter-
tained the greatest hopes, had proved a bit-
ter disappointment. He grew into an
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