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Netherlandish subjects by his attention to
their traditions and distinctive privileges.
He understood the languages (Dutch/Flem-
ish in the north, French in the south) and
their cultural traits. A cosmopolitan Euro-
pean, he regarded all of his far-flung realms
as equally deserving of his attention. P
HILIP
II did not share his father's perspective, nor
did he enjoy the same popularity in the
Netherlands. Regarding the 17 provinces as
mere colonial dependencies of Spain, he
neglected their sense of regional pride and
ignored their reserved rights. The onset of
the Reformation, particularly in the seven
Dutch-speaking provinces of the north, led
to religious tensions during the 1560s that
were exacerbated by rising nationalist sen-
timents. Philip's harsh, insensitive treat-
ment of his Dutch subjects provoked a
growing number of violent actions by both
Calvinist rebels and Spanish soldiers during
the 1560s and early 1570s. By 1579 Hol-
land, Zealand, and five allied provinces had
established de facto independence, and a
full-scale war was being waged by Spain to
bring them under submission. Although
some of the southern provinces initially
shared in the revolt, ethnic, religious, and
geopolitical factors ultimately determined
their retention by the Spanish monarchy.
By the time of Philip II's death in 1598,
the seven provinces of the north, united as
the Dutch Republic, were effectively sover-
eign. Despite periods of truce and various
initiatives to effect a compromise, succes-
sive Spanish rulers were unable to regain
control of the Dutch provinces. Once Spain
became embroiled in the Thirty Years' War
(1618-48), any chance of restoring the old
order was gone. During the latter half of
the 17th century the so-called Spanish
Netherlands (essentially modern Belgium)
survived as a relic of the old Burgundian
realm. After the extinction of the Spanish
Habsburg line and the W
AR
OF
THE
S
PANISH
S
UCCESSION
(1701-14), the area was ceded
to Austria, and the Spanish connection with
their once proud dominion was at an end.
Netherlands, Spain in the
Through the marriage of the Spanish prin-
cess J
OANNA
(daughter of F
ERDINAND
V and
I
SABELLA
I) to the Habsburg heir Philip
(P
HILIP
I), the immensely valuable and var-
ied territories in northwestern Europe
known as the Netherlands passed to Spain
at the beginning of the 16th century. Vari-
ously designated as the Low Countries, the
Burgundian Netherlands, or the Seventeen
Netherlands (because they composed 17
autonomous duchies, counties, and lord-
ships), these domains included major mari-
time, manufacturing, agricultural, and
cultural resources. C
HARLES
I of Spain (Holy
Roman Emperor Charles V), who was born
in Ghent in 1500, was profoundly repre-
sentative of this complex and sophisticated
region and did his best to integrate it eco-
nomically while recognizing the distinctive
character and reserved rights of his domin-
ions. His successor, P
HILIP
II, totally Castil-
ian in his sensibilities and priorities,
attempted to turn this rich inheritance into
a mere possession of imperial Spain. By the
1560s nationalistic and religious issues were
already producing violent outbursts in the
Netherlands. By 1579 the seven northern-
most provinces, largely Dutch speaking,
and Protestant, had renounced their alle-
giance and commenced an armed struggle
that would eventually create a sovereign
Dutch nation-state. The southern prov-
inces, predominantly French speaking and
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