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remain a grave problem for centuries to come. By tackling this problem
head on Olivares demonstrated both his intelligence and his reckless-
ness. His attempt to reorganize the Spanish Empire in wartime was
simply more than could be achieved. The centerpiece of his plan was
an Unión de Armas (Union of Arms) intended to create a unified armed
force drawn from all of Philip IV's military resources. A total of 140,000
men was envisioned, with specified contingents ranging from 44,000
from Castile and the Americas to 6,000 from the Duchy of Milan. These
contingents were to be made available on call from each of the dozen
realms that made up the empire and would be deployed to any area
that required reinforcements. Unlike many of his earlier reforms, which
were negated by passive noncompliance, Olivares's concept of an impe-
rial army was thwarted by outright refusals, springing from regional
legislatures and interest groups ranging from merchants to peasants. In
the end Spain's military commitments continued to be borne dispropor-
tionately by Castile.
The situation worsened after 1635, when Spain and France began to
confront each other directly on the battlefields of northern Europe.
France had previously played a role in the great war between the Aus-
trian Habsburgs and their Protestant enemies by subsidizing German
and Scandinavian armies. Now the duc de Richelieu and Olivares
became direct antagonists, and the Spanish minister found himself out-
classed by the French cardinal who subordinated religious zeal to
national advantage. Not only did Richelieu commit French troops on
the major battlefields, he intensified political intrigue and incitement
among Philip's vassals. Rebellions against the king in Portugal (1637)
and Catalonia (1639) were put down, but both regions launched for-
midable insurrections in 1640, which they were able to sustain with
French aid. The Catalans were not finally subdued until 1652. The Por-
tuguese, proclaiming the end of the dynastic union with Spain, contin-
ued their independence war until 1668, when Madrid formally
recognized their sovereign status. A relatively short-lived revolt in the
kingdom of Naples was crushed in the mid-1640s, though not without
diversion of badly needed units from other areas. In the meantime the
northern war continued to go badly as Spain's navy sustained a major
defeat off the Dutch coast in 1639, and the once-invincible Tercios
(infantry units) were beaten by the French at Rocroi in 1643. In that
year the aristocratic enemies of Olivares succeeded in persuading the
king to “retire” the minister on the grounds of declining health.
Although Olivares was succeeded as the king's chief councillor by his
nephew, Luis de Haro, his broad vision and bold designs soon faded
from the minds and hearts of the Spaniards. In 1648, as a by-product
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