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ing a rebellion in the Netherlands that was both a nationalistic
resistance to Spanish repression of traditional rights and an assertion
of Calvinist Protestantism. Spain would eventually split the Catholics
of the southern provinces (modern Belgium) away from the Dutch
Calvinists of the north. French Calvinists had been aiding the Dutch
rebels and threatening to take over the weakened French monarchy,
turning it into a serious threat to Spain once again. In this complex of
political and religious antagonists, Philip saw Elizabeth of England as
the ultimate enemy, who not only aided international anti-Catholicism
but sponsored piratical raids in the Spanish Caribbean. Philip formed
a grand design, which originally involved the replacement of Elizabeth
by her captive cousin, Mary Queen of Scots. This would have resulted
in a Catholic regime in England, Scotland, and Ireland under Spanish
control. When Mary was executed, Philip decided to replace her with
his own daughter, Isabella, and to combine the invasion of England
with a decisive onslaught against the Dutch rebels and the capture of
Paris by his Catholic allies, who would govern France in conformity
with Spanish guidance. His plan centered on the so-called Invincible
Armada, a Spanish-Portuguese fleet, supplemented by vessels from
allied countries that would combine warships with transports carrying
thousands of elite troops. After sweeping the English Channel clear of
resistance, the Armada would discharge its invasion force to carry out
the capture of the British Isles, while coordinated actions in Holland
and France would achieve total victory. When launched in the sum-
mer of 1588, the Armada suffered a series of mischances and aban-
doned the invasion; the other segments of the plan were equally
unsuccessful. Philip attempted to re-create his scheme but without
success. He was obliged to accept the victory of his old enemy Henri de
Bourbon, the Calvinist leader, as King Henry IV of France (albeit after
conversion to Catholicism) in 1595. Three years later, on his deathbed,
the monarch whom Spaniards called “the Prudent King” swore his
son, about to become Philip III, to carry on the fight against the English
and the Dutch.
Philip II, taciturn, conscientious, and hard working, had been driven
throughout his reign by a sense of historical mission. It is said that upon
gazing at a portrait of Ferdinand the Catholic, Philip murmured, “We
owe it all to him.” Certainly he was committed to preserving all that
Charles V had achieved and building an even greater Spanish empire
upon the existing foundations. Yet he had overstrained the nation's
resources and provided only a weak heir to the throne. Even as Renais-
sance Spain reached its peak of glory, the first signs of decay were begin-
ning to appear.
 
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