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is the best known example (Champagne
et al
., 1989; Ramji
et al
., 1996). This com-
pound and its analogues are potent
insect antifeedant and ecdysis inhibitors
(Govindachari
et al
., 1995; Kraus, 1995);
however, the structural complexity of
azadirachtin precludes its synthesis on a
commercial scale (Isman, 2006; Isman
and Akthar, 2007), leading us to search
for new and simpler secondary metabo-
lites with insecticidal activity. We have
focused on members of other families
including the Agavaceae and Asteraceae,
such as
Yucca, Parthenium Roldana,
Tagetes
and
Cedrela
species, especially
from tropical and subtropical areas of
South and Central America.
Some investigations on the sites and
mechanism of action of insecticidal or IGR
activity report that different phenolic com-
pounds are enzymatic and metabolic inhibi-
tors (Klocke and Kubo, 1982; Kubo and
Klocke, 1986; Kubo
et al
., 1994, 1995; Kubo
and Kinst-Hori, 1999a, 1999b; Kubo
et al
.,
2000; Shimizu
et al
., 2000; Calderon
et al
.,
2001; Panzuto
et al
., 2002; Kubo
et al
., 2003a,
2003b). In addition, many of these com-
pounds are polyphenolic secondary com-
pounds that are ubiquitous in angiosperms
and that have antifeedant effects on phy-
tophagous insects (Feeny, 1976; Rhoades and
Cates, 1976; Champagne
et al
., 1989, 1992;
Simmonds, 2003).
Our field observations indicate that
many botanical species from arid and semi-
arid lands possess strong resistance to insect
attack. The aim of our work is to correlate the
phytochemical composition with the inhibi-
tory effect on growth and development of
Acanthoscelides obtectus
Say (Coleoptera:
Bruchidae),
Spodoptera frugiperda
J.E. Smith
(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae),
Tenebrio molitor
L.
(Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae),
Pieris brassicae
L.,
Drosophila melanogaster
M.,
Epilachna
paenulata
Germar,
Epilachna varivestis
Mulsant,
Cydia pomonella
L.,
Aegorhinus
superciliosus
(Guerin) (Coleoptera: Curculio-
nidae),
Otiorhynchus sulcatus
(Fabricius)
and
Ceratitis capitata
(Wiedemann) (Insecta:
Diptera: Tephritidae). Many of these species
are very common insect pests in North- and
South-American crops. The role of the phyto-
chemical compounds as 'chemical messen-
gers' has proved to be important to our
understanding of many ecological problems
and has led to the development of 'chemical
ecology' (Seigler, 1998).
The effects of phytochemical extracts on
aspects such as insecticidal and growth regu-
latory activity, rate of development, pupation
time, adult emergence and deformity have
been evaluated and compared with those of
gallic acid, gedunin and toosendanin (Chen
et al
., 1995), and anisic acid and
Cedrela
methanol extract, known growth inhibitors
of
S. frugiperda
and tyrosinase, respectively
(Céspedes
et al
., 2000; Calderon
et al
., 2001;
Céspedes
et al
., 2001a,b; Kubo
et al
., 2003a,b;
Alarcon
et al
., 2011).
Acknowledgements
We thank CONICYT-Chile (Comision Nacional
de Investigacion Cientifica y Tecnologica)
through the FONDECYT Program, for Grant
# 1101003 to C.L.C. We also acknowledge the
Direccion de Investigacion of University of
Bío-Bío for partial financial support through
grant # 091909-1/R. Special thanks to Prof.
David S. Seigler, Department of Plant Biology,
University of Illinois, and to Prof. Sara Palacios
and Prof. Cecilia Carpinella, Catholic University
of Cordoba, Argentina, whose contributions
are gratefully appreciated.
References
Alarcon, J., Molina, S., Villalobos, N., Lillo, L., Lamilla, C., Cespedes, C.L. & Seigler, D.S., 2011.
Insecticidal activity of Chilean Rhamnaceae:
Talguenea quinquenervis
(Gill. et Hook.).
Boletín
Latinoamericano de Plantas Medicinales y Aromaticas
10, 383-388.
Andersen, S.O., 1990. Sclerotization of insect cuticle. In: Ohnishi, E. & Ishizaki, H. (eds)
Molting and
Metamorphosis
. Japan Society Press, Tokyo, pp. 133-155.
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