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synthase (iNOS)/NO and cyclooxygenase-2
(COX-2)/PGE pathways in RAW 264.7 mac-
rophages has been reported (Dominguez
et al
., 2010; Schreckinger
et al
., 2010a).
Subsequently, the effects of a similar extract
on an ischaemic/reperfusion system, sev-
eral antioxidant activities of that extract,
and the relationship between total phenolic
levels and the cardioprotective effect
(Céspedes
et al
., 2008, 2010a), the presence
of 3-hydroxyindole (Céspedes
et al
., 2009),
and the anti-inflammatory activity against
12-0-tetra-decanoyl-phorbol-13-acetate
(TPA), have also been introduced into the
literature (Céspedes
et al
., 2010b).
As a continuation of our general screen-
ing programme for anti-inflammatory activ-
ity of
A. chilensis
(Céspedes
et al
., 2010b),
these fruit extracts have been investigated
further in the carrageenan-induced paw
oedema inflammation mouse model. In these
studies, the ethanol and acetone extracts,
their fractions and subfractions, the occur-
rence of phenolic compounds (Céspedes
et al
., 2009, 2010a), and the correlations of
the phytochemical content and gastroprotec-
tive effects were examined.
In general, the compounds that occur in
A. chilensis
are similar or identical to the
active components of many other anti-
inflammatory plants. Many phenolic acids,
anthocyanins and flavonoids have been
shown to have inhibitory activity on nitric
oxide synthesis, which is implicated in
physiological and pathological processes as
a contributor to chronic inflammation
(Matsuda
et al
., 2000; Odontuya
et al
., 2005).
These findings substantiate that anthocy-
anins, flavonoids and phenolic acids are
responsible for at least a portion of the anti-
inflammatory and gastroprotective activities
of this and many other fruits.
We are presently studying the kinetics
of inhibition of these plant extracts and
compounds as anti-inflammatory agents and
are examining the sites and mechanism of
action of iNOS, COX, tumour necrosis factor
and other similar compounds (Dominguez
et al
., 2010).
The use of traditional medicine is
widespread and plants still present a large
source of novel active biological compounds
with different activities, including anti-
inflammatory, anticancer, antiviral, anti-
feedant and antibacterial activities. Together
with enzyme inhibitors (inhibitors of tyro-
sinase, acetylcholinesterase and melanin
oxidase), the antioxidants may play a role in
health-promoting activity as nutraceuticals
(Céspedes,
et al
., 2006).
1.3
Biopesticides
A widespread effort to find new agrochemi-
cals has focused on natural compounds
such as flavonoids, coumarins, terpenoids
and phenolics from diverse botanical fami-
lies from Mexico and the Americas (Alarcon
et al
., 2011; Céspedes
et al
., 2006, 2013;
Muñoz
et al
., 2013). In continuation of
our general screening programme of the
Latin-American flora with biological activi-
ties (Céspedes,
et al
., 2000; Céspedes
and Alarcon, 2011), an examination of the
extracts and compounds from several
selected species such as
Araucaria arau-
cana
(Araucariaceae),
Aristotelia chilensis,
Condalia mycrophylla, Talguenea quinquen-
ervis, Discaria spp., Colletia spinossisima
(Rhamnaceae),
Calceolaria integrifolia s.l
.
complex (Scrophulariaceae),
Penstemon
gentianoides
and
Penstemon campanulatus
(Plantaginaceae,formerlyScrophulariaceae),
Yucca periculosa
(Agavaceae),
Baccharis
magellanica, Baccharis salicifolius, Baccharis
linearis,Gutierreziamicrocephala,Gutierrezia
gayana, Roldana barba-johannis, Podanthus
ovatifolius, Podanthus mitiqui, Tagetes luc-
ida
(Asteraceae), and two exotic species
Rhus javanica
(Anacardiaceae) and
Pimpinella
anisum
(Umbelliferaceae), for biocidal activ-
ity has been initiated.
Tyrosinase, also known as polyphenol
oxidase (PPO) (Mayer, 2006), is a copper-
containing enzyme that is widely distributed
in microorganisms, animals and plants. This
enzyme catalyses two distinct reactions of
melanin synthesis (Robb, 1984): the hydrox-
ylation of a monophenol (monophenolase
activity) and the conversion of an
o
-diphenol
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