Outsourcing Emissions: Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) as Ecological Modernisation - Implementing Environmental and Resource Management - page 275

local contexts that need not necessarily subscribe to the larger understanding of
sustainability (CSE 2005; Kim 2004).
Secondly, in operational contexts, CDM as an instrument that combines the
dual objectives of attaining cost effective GHG reductions for the advanced indus-
trial countries and accomplishing sustainable development in developing coun-
tries, is referred to both as a source of synergy and conflict (Olsen 2005). There is
a trade-off happening between these twin objectives (Lövbrand et al. 2007) where
the actors exert different strategies to appropriate the mechanism according to
their interests. After reviewing quite a few studies that deal with this conflict, Ol-
sen (2005) points out that the aim of cost-effective GHG reductions overruns the
sustainability priorities significantly. The projects with higher social equity fea-
tures are progressively decreasing not only because of the higher invest-
ment/operational costs but also due to the lower volume of carbon credits they
generally fetch. This market pressure in turn leads the host countries and their
DNA (Designated National Authority) to define 7 competitively lower standards
for sustainable development criteria within their territorial limits to attract more
CDM investments. Thus, the sustainability standards are set as per the prevailing
market situations of the carbon transactions, due to the global scope of CDM and
the wider choice of location for the investors (Olsen 2005).

21.3.2 Analytical Categories and Definitions of Problems

While conceiving the problem and operationalising the remedial courses, the cli-
mate change regime has constructed an elaborate network of actors and charted
out the specific modalities of interaction. These network prescriptions and catego-
ries in turn regulate and govern the actors by placing them in specific locations of
specific significance. The issues around the analytical categories and problem
definitions have been some of the widely contentious domains in the case of
CDM. However, the difficulties with analytical categories and definitions of prob-
lems can be rather broad (see Grundmann 2006; Pielke Jr. 2005; van der Sluijs et
al. 1998).

National Emissions against per Capita Emissions

Emissions measured on the basis of the country levels, and not on the basis of per
unit of population, is an issue argued to be disproportionate and against the values
of equity and ecological justice (Agarwal and Narain 1999; Byrne et al. 1998).
Byrne et al. (1998) argue for a per capita emission-based stabilization objective
that they consider to be equitable as every individual has a common share in the
potential emission to the common atmosphere. While the present emission levels
show a huge disparity between people belonging to different regions, the problem

7

DNA of the specific developing country is the agency to define the specified sustainabil-
ity standards that are applicable to that particular country.