Biochemistry of Flower Senescence - Postharvest Biology and Technology of Fruits, Vegetables, and Flowers - page 64

roses (Mayak and Halevy, 1974), Gerbera sp. (van Meeteren, 1979), and petunia ( Petunia
x hybrida ; Taverner et al., 1999), but the response depended on the type and concentration
of cytokinin and the stage of flower development.
Interactions between cytokinins and other hormones during senescence have been less
studied. Cytokinin applications to carnation flowers delay senescence and are associated
with reduced ethylene biosynthesis and decreased sensitivity to ethylene (Cook et al., 1985).
A study suggested that ethylene production during petunia senescence promotes cytokinin
degradation and inactivation by O -glucosylation (Taverner et al., 1999). The sensitivity of
flowers to ethylene increases as they mature, and this sensitivity change also has a role in
the initiation of senescence (Woodson and Lawton, 1988).
Until very recently, no genes involved in cytokinin biosynthesis had been identified
from plants (Sun et al., 2003). Plants with altered cytokinin content have been generated by
manipulating cytokinin biosynthetic gene, ipt (Medford et al., 1989). The ipt gene encodes
isopentenyl transferase, an enzyme that catalyzes the condensation of dimethylallylpy-
rophosphate and 5 -AMP to isopentenyladenosine (iPA) 5 -phosphate. This is assumed to
represent a rate-limiting step in cytokinin biosynthesis because the introduction of the ipt
gene into plants results in increased accumulation of many forms of cytokinins (Morris,
1995). Very low increases in endogenous cytokinin content of transgenic plants have been
associated with pleiotropic effects including inhibition of root growth, stunted shoots, re-
duced apical dominance, increased stem diameter, and retarded leaf senescence (Schmulling
et al., 1999). An approach to target the expression of ipt to senescing tissues with the pro-
moter from SAG12, a senescence-associated gene from Arabidopsis , demonstrated a direct
effect of cytokinins on plant senescence (Gan and Amasino, 1995). Numerous plants trans-
formed with SAG12-IPT have significant delays in leaf senescence (Gan and Amasino,
1995; Jordi et al., 2000; Zhang et al., 2000; McCabe et al., 2001). Studies with these plants
have confirmed that changes in cytokinin content impact the initiation of leaf senescence,
nitrogen partitioning, photosynthetic enzyme activities, and chlorophyll degradation dur-
ing senescence (McCabe et al., 2001). Sustained cytokinin content also enhances flooding
and drought tolerance (Dervinis, 1999; Zhang et al., 2000). Although there are reports of
SAG12-IPT plants with enhanced flower longevity (Zhang et al., 2000; Schroeder et al.,
2001), there has been no investigation of the effects of endogenous cytokinin levels on
the regulation of flower senescence beyond these phenotypic observations. Chang et al.
(2003) used transgenic petunias expressing the P SAG12 -IPT chimeric gene to determine the
effects of increased cytokinin levels in petals on flower senescence and to investigate the
interactions between cytokinin accumulation and ethylene production, ethylene sensitivity,
and ABA accumulation. Comparisons with nontransformed control plants demonstrated
interactions between these signaling molecules that resulted in significantly delayed flo-
ral senescence. Identification of cytokinin receptors and cytokinin-responsive genes have
increased our understanding of cytokinin signaling and interaction between cytokinin and
other signals in recent years (Brenner et al., 2005; Ferreira and Kieber, 2005; Rashotte et al.,
2005). Recent analysis of transgenic petunia plants with upregulated cytokinin biosynthe-
sis showed that the flowers were less sensitive to exogenous ethylene and required longer
treatment with ethylene to induce endogenous ethylene production and corolla senescence,
and to upregulate senescence-related genes (Chang et al., 2003). Raised cytokinin content
in plants has also been linked to improved tolerance of stress (Clark et al., 2004). Else-
where, ethylene production in petunia corollas has been shown to promote senescence by