Programmed Cell Death during Plant Senescence - Postharvest Biology and Technology of Fruits, Vegetables, and Flowers - page 87

that interact with the mitochondrial membrane, facilitating or inhibiting its release. These
intracellular events activate a family of cysteine aspartate-specific proteases known as cas-
pases, which are both regulators and the effectors of cell death. Caspases act on a plethora
of targets initiating cell condensation, nuclear fragmentation, and DNA breakdown. The
characteristic DNA laddering occurs as a result of cleavage at the nucleosome linker sites
by DNase, which is activated both by the caspases and more directly by increases in cytoso-
lic calcium levels (Peitsch et al., 1993). Autophagy in mammalian cells (Stromhaug and
Klionsky, 2001) was originally associated with a response to starvation. It is characterized
by the formation of vesicles-containing proteins and organelles that are transported to the
lysosome. Known as autophagosomes, these vesicles have a short half-life (in the range
of a few minutes), and their contents are then digested by the hydrolase-packed lysosomes
to generate monomeric building blocks. The signaling pathways leading to autophagy are
much less well-defined than those involved in apoptosis; however, heterotrimeric G pro-
teins (Ogier-Denis et al., 2000) and type III phosphoinositide 3-phosphatases (Petiot et
al., 2000) have been implicated. Interestingly, autophagy and apoptosis may not be com-
pletely independent mechanisms. Beclin 1, which interacts with Bcl-2 family of proteins,
is associated with type III phosphoinositide 3-phosphatases, and may have a role in sorting
proteins destined for the autophagosome (Kihara et al., 2001). Also, sphingosine, known
to activate apoptosis, increases the activity of lysosomal proteases such as cathepsin B,
which in turn are caspase activators (Ferri and Kroemer, 2001). Notably, the lysosomes
appear to act upstream of the mitochondria, suggesting a regulatory role in apoptosis (Yuan
et al., 2002). Few genes with sequence homology to those involved in animal PCD have
been identified in plants despite the availability of genome sequences from representatives
of the major taxonomic divisions of flowering plants, namely, Arabidopsis representing
dicotyledonous plants (The Arabidopsis Genome Initiative, 2000) and rice representing the
monocotyledons (Goff et al., 2002). Putative homologs include those for Bax inhibitor-1,
an inhibitor of the proapoptotic Bcl-2 family member Bax (Kawai et al., 1999) involved
in apoptosis, Beclin (Laporte et al., 2004) involved in autophagy, and dad-1 (Orzaez and
Granell, 1997a), although doubt has been cast on the regulatory role of dad-1 (Kelleher and
Gilmore, 1997). Although homologs of caspases have not been identified from the genome
sequences (Lam and Del Pozo, 2000), plant metacaspase members of a related superfamily
are found in plant genomes (Lam, 2004), and can trigger apoptosis-like cell death in yeast
(Watanabe and Lam, 2005). In addition, caspase inhibitors inhibit plant PCD in several
systems.
5.2 Pathways for PCD in plants
Built into the genome of almost all living organisms is a genetic program for cell suicide, or
programmed cell death (PCD). However, although the function of this program is conserved
among all organisms, the genetic pathways responsible for mediating and executing PCD
might be very different among organisms such as bacteria, yeast, plants, and animals (Mittler,
1998). Furthermore, even within a single organism, many different pathways may control
and mediate PCD (Beers and McDowell, 2001). In plants, many different cell death signals
can activate PCD, and PCD can manifest itself in many different forms (Greenberg, 1996).
Thus, for example, hypersensitive response-PCD and PCD of xylem vessels are initiated by
very different signals and manifest themselves in very different forms (Dangl et al., 1996;