Geography Reference
In-Depth Information
and providing a stimulus to overthrowing the established social and political order.
Indeed, without appropriate festival regulation and policies to cope with crowds, any
festive event can get out of control and inflict serious damage upon other spectators
and the local environment, whilst in extreme case riots may develop. For example,
the early post World War II urban ethnic festivals, such as Notting Hill in London,
celebrating the heritage of West Indian immigrants, often led to major unrest and
police action, although subsequently community consultation and careful monitor-
ing by the police and local authorities has led to more peaceful events during the last
few decades. Pioneering music festivals, such as Beaulieu in southern England in the
early 1960s, were abandoned after a few years because of the damage produced by
anti-social elements. The same happened to the annual German Love Festival that
was held in Berlin for many years, then moved to Dusseldorf and finally to Bochum
in 2010 largely because of overcrowding in poor facilities and disruptive behaviour
that has led to rioting and deaths during the event.
14.5.5
Festival Exchanges
Festivals also normally involve exchanges, although these can be of very different
types. Historically, there were often
symbolic exchanges
in festive events, where
humans or animals were sacrificed as part of the rituals designed to provide a scape-
goat for the assumed transgressions of the people. Others were designed to ensure
prosperity
, such as success in harvest or war, or propitiating the Gods. The sani-
tized form of some of these exchanges may still be seen in modern festive events,
but their original bloodletting and meaning has been largely lost. Other festivals
were dominated either by
reciprocity
, through exchanges of social capital, or by
redistribution
, in the sense that goods were given or exchanged as part of the cel-
ebrations. But the exchange can also be symbolic, in the form of spectators pledging
allegiance to, or at least acceptance of, the secular or religious leaders during the
festivals in return for their protection and governance.
The exchanges, or limited versions of them, still occur in some modern versions
of historic festivals, but most goods and services in our contemporary society have
been commodified. This means that
market exchange mechanisms
increasingly
dominate the festivals. Festivals, especially the largest ones, are seen as money gen-
erators for the organisers and the associated businesses provided during the festive
events. Certainly they may provide cultural or other functions, such as the music
or other performances in arts festivals in exchange for money provided from ticket
sales to the various events and activities. But increasingly the exchange value of the
major festivals is seen as primarily of economic benefit, rather than their original
functions.
14.5.6
Festival Connectivities
Festivals influence the connectivities between the local communities, or the people
who are involved in, and affected by, the events. There is not necessarily one outcome;
