Geography Reference
In-Depth Information
the pre-school years, the other during adolescence, in which deficient socialization
patterns often lead to the subsequent delinquent and violent behaviour that often
underlies criminality. In the first phase Fonagy (
2003
,
2004
) has argued that the
older ideas that people are socialized into these anti-social and criminal behaviours
by the influence of others is not the main cause of crime. Instead he maintained that
most young children are 'socialised out' of these attributes by their parents, family
and neighbours because of a process of 'mentalisation'. This is a process of social
cognition where children learn how to make sense of the world and how to react,
essentially developing self-control and empathy with others, which enables them to
function within groups by losing their propensity to injure others. Those that do not
undergo this development, are the ones that are subsequently disruptive in class and
engage in bullying and violent behaviour at an early age. Since it often continues in
later years, it has become a good prediction for subsequent delinquent and criminal
activity. Some researchers (Tiihonen et al.
2014
) have studied whether there is a
genetic disposition to these behaviours, although this seems to be small and may
be turned-off by subsequent positive parenting. The more important influences on
behaviour come from the milieu in which the child is nurtured. Since this is a time
of major cognitive development in the brain, a child needs high levels of attach-
ment to, and support from, parents, family and carers, who do not allow anti-social
behaviour, as well as exposure to a large number of words and positive experiences
that improves cognition and expression, which Hart and Risley (
2003
) have shown
to vary drastically between children under four brought up in welfare, working and
middle class households. Environments that do not provide such support are those
with high levels of people without education, or in poverty and, family breakdown,
and the problems become even worse if children are abandoned, abused or are in
contact with people or parents suffering from mental disabilities, addictions to drugs
or alcohol, or engage in cruel and sexual practices. There are causal associations
between these negative early environmental influences and crime, for they degrade
the normal developmental process produced by positive parenting, producing chil-
dren who are likely to stressed and anxious, with impaired cognitive development,
leading to slower progress in school, health problems, emotional detachment, lack
of self-esteem and often future deviancy, in which violence is used as a way out of
difficulties. Chapter 13 on Healthy Cities describes how such impoverished early
life characteristics are biologically embodied.
The second critical stage in the relationship between crime and personal devel-
opment is found in the fact that adolescence and crime is often correlated, although
this usually intensifies problems already present (Hawkins
1996
). Male self-report
studies in the U.S.A. have shown that almost a quarter of all males commit at least
one act of serious violence before they are aged 18, with a peak of offending around
16-17 years of age and continuing for just under a decade (Elliott
1993
). In addi-
tion, the need for fellowship outside of family often leads young teens into gangs
in which new relationships are forged in place of parental or school associations.
This often leads to a 'teen socialization' into delinquent behaviour and even crime,
through imitative actions that provides initiation into a group, or a way of obtaining
status and respect within it (CSJ
2009b
). These groups then provide the fellowship
