Geography Reference
In-Depth Information
ness. Such policies have often been seen as causing reductions of crime rates in
these deteriorating areas. However there is mixed evidence about this causal con-
nection from various studies. Sampson and Raudenbach (
1999
) have argued that
there are intervening causal factors involved, such as the collective efficacy of the
residents—their shared expectations of the social conditions of space—in wishing
to reduce crime. Most studies that support the deteriorating area-higher crime hy-
pothesis, often summarized as the 'Broken Window' concept, were of small areas,
whose uniqueness may mean the positive relationship may not be scalable to large
areas. However Worrall's (2002) large scale study of crime rates in all California
counties between 1989 and 2000, did reveal a positive correlation between rigorous
Broken Window policing and lower crime rates after controlling for several social
and economic variables. Yet Worrall cautioned that the correlation did not confirm
that there was a causal connection between the two. It must also be noted that the
general drop in crime rates and gentrification in areas—a process that is the op-
posite of decay—over the period also produced contextual differences between the
areas studied. So it is difficult to attribute causal connections between local crime
decline and these policing methods alone. Also, there is always the problem that
heavier policing may end up criminalizing more people in such deteriorating areas
for minor infractions which would be ignored elsewhere. Despite these caveats, the
Broken Windows-Heavier Policing policies still have a lot of support among police
forces.
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Crime and Urban Renewal Designs and Materials
The presence of well-designed and clean areas, especially of public spaces, may
help to deter anti-social behaviour and crime. Although urban renewal was a major
urban trend in 1960s, it is generally recognized that most designs, as well as the
materials used in many of these projects, increased the likelihood of crime by creat-
ing uni-functional, barren concrete spaces, rarely overlooked, and devoid of people
for most of the evenings. Such areas quickly became vandalised and defaced with
graffiti, because of insufficient local authority control to maintain these areas. Even
when such projects have been renovated, the same problems occur, so constant
maintenance is a priority. A new approach to the problem has been to get private
businesses with a stake in the area, or rich individuals, to assist in the financing
and maintenance of such areas, with the proviso that companies with the contract
to maintain the areas be given specific targets that have to be fulfilled, otherwise
the contract goes elsewhere. Another policy that has achieved success in the U.S.A.
is to provide tax breaks for corporations that invest in depressed or disadvantaged
areas, such as the successful projects of the New York Opportunity Zones, or Phila-
delphia's Empowerment Areas. In general, the removal or refurbishment of slum
and derelict areas can play an important part in the fight against crime in specific
neighbourhoods. What is also important in these projects is the involvement of the
local residents and especially youths in the process, in order to create a sense of
pride and ownership over their area. This helps to deter vandals. In addition it is
