Geography Reference
In-Depth Information
aboriginal justice methods in Canada for those in the group charged with non-vio-
lent or minor crimes. In the last decade increasing numbers of criminologists and
judges have argued that that vamping up the existing repressive system is counter-
productive (Greenwood 2004 ), as well as producing increasing marginal returns
in the sense that since keeping people locked up when they are young and violent
may reduce crime rates, but is not cost-effective when they become elderly and of
no threat to others (Useem and Piehl 2008 ). Also the costs of incarceration have
reached crisis levels in some countries. For example, in U.S.A. the costs of the cor-
rectional system rose from $ 9 billion in 1986 to $ 60 billion 20 years later and by
2013 was close to $ 80 billion, with 450,000 people employed in jails, a considerable
increase from the 125,000 employed in in 1980. Costs may be lower in other coun-
tries but the rapid upward trend is the same. For example, in Canada the cost of the
federal custodial system increased from C$ 1.6 to almost C$ 3 billion between 2005
and 2011 and each prisoner now costs C$ 113,000 per year, a substantial rise from
C$ 88, 000 since 2005, whereas keeping one in the community averages C$ 29,500
(Correctional Services of Canada 2011 ). Similar problems have been recognised
in other countries. These expenditure are leading even conservative politicians to
argue that the cost explosion of prisons in a debt-ridden western society cannot be
sustained, which does seem to be leading to gradual support for different sentencing
laws and more rehabilitative measures to reduce the high rates of recidivism. In the
summer of 2013 the U.S attorney-general announced measures to reform the auto-
matic imposition of mandatory sentences in federal courts for some offences, giving
judges the power back to make their own decisions on the evidence. This approach
had already been applied in many traditional conservative states like Texas, while
also providing more help for efforts to assist prisoners re-enter society after release
from jail, as well as sentencing to community service rather than prison. These new
policies are likely to reduce the incarceration of people convicted of minor drug of-
fences who are non-violent and not linked to gangs, many of whom had previously
been imprisoned for life because of the 'three convictions and life sentence' rule
adopted in response to the spike in crime rate from the 1980s. This change, along
with the related one of releasing elderly prisoners who pose little threat to anybody,
is likely to reduce prison populations and should substantially reduce costs of pris-
ons in the future.
12﻽6
Area-Based Changes
Two very different areal approaches to reducing crime rates in cities have been
adopted. One is based on new community approaches to reduce crime. The other is
upon environmental design changes to reduce crime. Both also affect the percep-
tion of crime and may improve its detection. Although they may overlap with some
of the policing initiatives that have been described, such as hot-spot policing, these
initiatives are carried out by different actors, or new organizations that grow out of
citizen involvement to change character of areas.
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