Geography Reference
In-Depth Information
12.3.4
Consequences of Crime
There are huge differences between countries in the use of custodial sentences to
punish offenders. Although there has been a substantial increase in prison sen-
tences in most countries, the incarceration rates in the United States are astonish-
ing, a direct and seemingly publically supported response to the increase in crime
(Useem and Piehl
2008
). The prison population in the U.S.A. increased from 110
per 100,000 people in 1975, a level that had not fluctuated much for decades, to
476 prisoners per 100,000 population in 2005. Indeed the total prison population
reached 2.31 million in 2008, with a slight decline since, but this is still 1 prisoner
per 107 adults, about five times the world average, with prisons on average at 30 %
over capacity, and an estimated one in six of the inmates having some mental ill-
ness. Also the numbers of people on parole or probation rose from 1 to 5 million
between 1980 and 2005. Other countries have also shown increases in the number
of inmates but with much lower levels of incarceration. Few doubt the need to give
prison sentences to the incorrigibly violent, the socio-paths and those who com-
mitted horrendous crimes against people, though it is dubious that such offenders
should be in same place as those who carried out less serious offences. Although it
has often been argued that the increase in repressive policies has worked in keeping
criminals off the streets, almost half of the prisoners in U.S. federal prisons are there
for drug offences, not violent behaviour. Many were guilty of small amounts of drug
possession, but are in prison for life because of the high rates of re-offending and
the 'three offenses and prison for life rule' adopted in many states of the U.S.A. This
is a rule that is being increasingly seen to be unjust and has been a major reason for
the increase in the prison population, leading to recent moves to remove the statute
in some states. Similarly, problems are seen in the use of mandatory sentences, al-
lowing judges little discretion in their decisions, or the limited use of alternatives,
such as treatments not coercive punishment.
Another problem comes from the fact that prison populations are often domi-
nated by minority groups, such as the black population in the U.S.A. and aborigi-
nals in Canada. Without condoning the crimes to which they have been charged,
there can be little doubt that the over-representation of these groups means that
something has gone wrong in their socialization and education and ability to find
lawful employment. This essentially repressive approach has led to the creation of a
brutalizing and violence-ridden society in many prisons, with limited rehabilitation
of offenders. These conditions have had the effect of providing a socialising and
learning environment with other offenders, one that often persists when they are re-
leased from prison, increasing the propensity to violence of many ex-prisoners and
their level of alienation from the rest of society. Since there are few rehabilitation
programmes it may not be surprising to find that a U.S. Department of Justice re-
port (La Vigne et al.
2006
) revealed that two-thirds of prisoners reoffended within 3
years and most went back to prison, while in the U.K. 58 % were reconvicted within
2 years, with rates of 76 % for young males (HMPS
2002
). Although rates of recidi-
vism do vary between countries these high rates of re-offending persist despite the
