Geography Reference
In-Depth Information
is particularly acute in unequal societies and in the disorganized, impoverished in-
ner areas of large cities. This is a result of the greater mobility and individualiza-
tion of modern life, helped by the breakdown of traditional positive socializing
forces from the 1960s, forces such as family, schools, neighbourhood, and perhaps
a decreased spirituality, for most religions promote moral standards. The result has
been far more single parenting by poor people, fewer moral role models, and less
trusting relationships between individuals. It has reduced the positive socialization
between people that discouraged criminal behaviours in the past, and increased the
propensity to criminality through participation in gangs, especially for youth. Gangs
often encourage crime among members and in return provide a sense of allegiance,
belonging, and perhaps personal esteem and a recognition that they cannot get from
their family or neighbours.
A sixth factor stems from the growth in the numbers of people with
mental health
problems
, either untreated or who were released after the reduction in hospitals
and treatment centres in the 1980s—supposedly into the 'community' which was
supposed to help them adjust. This community did not exist in practice—with the
result that they swelled the ranks of the homeless, so many engaged in petty crime
in cities. It is pertinent that a U.S. Department Justice study (La Vigne et al.
2006
)
reported that 16 % of prisoners in jail had mental health problems. Another causal
factor comes from the consequences of the erosion of local community linkages
and the development of more
individualistic personal behaviours
that focus on the
self (Taylor
1986
; Fonagy et al.
2002
). Although this has led many to greater self-
awareness, confidence and less deference to authority, such a focus without social-
ization into a consideration for others often leads to increasing levels of incivilities
and the breaking of existing mores, from carelessness about littering, jostling oth-
ers, playing loud music, defacing buildings and environments, to a range of related
anti-social behaviours. These behaviours may not be criminal initially, but if not
restrained often escalate into criminal actions. Even without the escalation, they
create feelings of unease or even fear to those exposed to these actions, creating a
higher perception of crime. Linked to this lack of respect for, or concern about oth-
ers, has been an increase in the levels of gratuitous violence which results in a lower
moral consciousness about the effect of violence, or stealing. In addition, Pressdee
(
2000
) has described what he calls the 'carnival of crime' in which many people
have a rational, ordered life in the week, but some engage in anti-social or criminal
behaviour on holidays or weekends to escape the constraints of their normal life, fo-
cusing upon their own needs for excitement and ignoring the consequences of their
behaviour on others. An eighth factor comes from the initially
ineffective responses
from police forces
from the 1960s, where the abandonment of foot patrols in favour
of cars reduced links with residents of communities, especially racial minorities,
and the ability of the police to understand their problems and crime potential.
Although the spike in crime from the 1970s has been enough to worry citizens
and governments, there can be little doubt that the increased
perception of crime
also increased the level of insecurity in the population, especially among the elderly
and minority groups (Gray et al.
2008
). For example, by the early 1990s, it has been
reported that over two-fifths of the population in both the U.S.A. and in Scotland
were afraid to walk alone at night (Source Book of U.S. Criminal Justice Statistics
