Geography Reference
In-Depth Information
more productive. In 2006 Amsterdam created an Expatcentre which claims to have
assisted over three-quarters of the skilled immigrants who moved to the city in
recent years. Many centres also need to improve their image. Some have managed
this by
positive advertising and branding
. Others have used the presence of some
major international event to focus attention on their assets which often involves ma-
jor infrastructure improvements. For example Barcelona's hosting of the Olympics
in 1992 helped transform its structure and image from its role as the second city in
Spain, largely based on manufacturing and service, into a more dynamic cultural,
tourist and research node.
The
External Capital
of a city and its region also has potential for improving
development, especially by bringing in skilled people and venture capital. Another
valuable approach is to see whether the outputs of various firms in the city can be
used as raw material inputs to others in the area. This is seen in the type of eco-cycle
links described in Chap. 5, but has also been important in the growth of many indus-
trial or even service clusters through
linkages
within cities. Older attempts to create
new industrial bases in depressed regions, such as the various industrial estates in
Britain established in high unemployment areas in the 1930s, did add new factories
to these areas. But very few ever developed spin-offs, providing inputs for other
businesses that would create growth between them. So there was little possibility
of self-generating growth. Many were branch plants that declined when the parent
company experienced problems. In addition, attention should be paid to other prob-
lems that may inhibit growth in an area, such as high tax or utility rates, or even low
productivity in a city or region; such features limit innovation opportunities.
11.7.5
Charter Cities
One of the most obvious problems of cities is that they are rarely free from state
control or influence in many areas, so their room to create opportunities by them-
selves may be restricted by state regulations, or more generally by the state culture,
laws, rights and freedoms. In some places, such as California, towns have the right
to set up a charter by which they can govern themselves, though this is mainly the
choice of council structure, for they are still subject to state law in other areas. But
the term 'charter' is also being used by cities who wish to rewrite national or state
law on the powers of particular local municipalities. This would provide them with
a new charter which would give them more ability to act on their own, which could
involve taxing powers and local courts.
Recognition of the way that deficiencies in state culture, institutions and limited
intellectual knowledge, have restricted growth in cities in underdeveloped lands
led the economist, Paul Romer (
2013
), to advocate for what he called Charter Cit-
ies in these areas. He envisaged countries allowing the development of a new city
in its lands which would adopt a charter of rights based on the legal regulations
of some other country. This is assumed to be a free-enterprise, developed country
that has personal freedoms and legal constraints to prevent the corruption, distorted
economic policies and inertia that often plagues development in many undeveloped
