Geography Reference
In-Depth Information
molecular bonds in toxins such as dioxin and furans, making them harmless, while
the flue gases can be used to produce stream to drive turbines that creates electricity
in what are called Waste to Energy plants (WtE) plants. Japan, given its shortage of
available land for infill sites, has always persisted with incineration, while Denmark
and Sweden in particular have been pioneers in developing new WtE techniques
(Themelis
2003
). Even in 2005 Denmark obtained almost 5 % of its electricity from
such sources, a figure that rises to 14 % of domestic heat consumption through its
district energy schemes. Even in the U.S.A. there were 85 WtE plants by 2012,
creating 14,000 jobs, power to serve 1.3 million homes and $ 5.6 billion in gross
economic activity (Berenyi
2013
). Hence incinerators, as part of WtE power gener-
ation, are no longer shunned. They are increasingly being adopted around the world,
helped not only by the higher costs and scarcity of landfills but by government ac-
tion in providing tax credits to reduce the cost of installing the new generation of
incinerators (Themelis
2003
). It is estimated by Ecoprog (EP
2013
) that there are
2200 WtE plans in the world and by 2017 there will be 2400 with a capacity of using
over 300 million t of waste per year.
In other countries more and more municipalities are developing new garbage
disposal methods in place of space-consuming landfill sites. At the beginning of
the new millennium research on the problem of waste disposal in San Francisco
showed that 90 % of the waste from this city of 840,000 people could be recycled,
which would reduce its need for new landfills or incinerators. So in 2002 it adopted
an ambitious Zero Waste policy designed to eliminate waste that could be compos-
ted or recycled by 2020 (SFW), making it the first major U.S. city to have an ordi-
nance to separate different waste streams. In the 2001-2005 period the proportion
of waste recycled increased from 42 to 60 %, but soon stuck on a 70 % level. New
policies were implemented, first making all restaurants and food establishments put
their food waste in organic containers for pick-up, and then extending a system of
compulsory organic waste and recycling bins to all residences and offices, with non-
compliance leading to first warnings, then fines. By 2013 the city achieved a 80 %
diversion rate, showing the success of adopting a main target, and the gradual step-
by-step introduction of new policies that allowed businesses and residents to get
used to the changes, and to understand the advantages of the policies. This includes
the daily production of 600 t of high value compost each day from the organic waste
processed in the city's new plant at Vacaville, north of the city (Pouchard
2014
). A
more general policy of waste processing combined with sewage treatment can be
seen in the city of Edmonton which was one of the first Canadian cities to have a
separate waste stream collection from households, but also claims to have one of the
world's most efficient and comprehensive new plants for waste material and sewage
processing and treatment. Its key features are described in Table
6.1
. This example
of an inclusive new approach by an urban municipality in dealing with household
waste shows how re-cycling can produce major advances in the degree of sustain-
ability in cities. If more urban places upgraded their waste systems to comparable
standards, huge advances in sustainability can be made. But there is also a need for
towns and cities to reduce many of their other inputs, and also to reduce or trans-
form additional outputs to those involving waste from households and businesses.
