Geography Reference
In-Depth Information
problem to the conceptual confusion associated with the term is the difficulty of
finding objective indicators to measure its various dimensions that are accepted in
jurisdictions throughout the world and can be used as the basis for explicit empirical
comparisons. Far too many of the measurements are specific to individual studies.
There is a need for much greater agreement on the choice and measurement of in-
dictors, although the problem is being solved by action from international bodies in
at least some of the physical indicators.
Despite these problems there have been attempts to provide comparable mea-
surements of the degree of sustainability of the biggest urban settlements at a global
scale, with Siemens Green Index being one of the most useful to date, although this
is primarily an index of physical characteristics. Although exact scores could not be
obtained for cities outside Europe and North America, the relative ranking of large
cities in the recently industrialized and developing world show their limited prog-
ress on the sustainability measures. In Europe and North America there are major
variations between the larger cities, but the low scores of the cities of the former
eastern European communist bloc stand out, whereas the Northern Europe cities
and some of the west coast of America cities show high scores which indicate the
progress that these cities are making.
Given the huge scope of sustainability policies this chapter has focused on the
issues and policies found at a global scale or carried out by national governments
and corporations, leaving those that operate at a more specifically urban scale for
Chaps. 6 and 7. What is apparent is that there are real signs of technological prog-
ress in dealing with the water and sewage problems of cities but that there are still
too many urban places that do not have effective policies. However, one of the
biggest problems in achieving greater sustainability comes from our dependence
on fossil energy sources which not only produce many noxious emissions but are
threatening to alter the world's climate, adding another dimension to the range of
natural hazards to our settlements, effects that are reviewed in Chap. 9 (Resilient
Cities).
Despite considerable progress in the development of renewable energy sources,
the growth of the world population and its increased energy needs mean that the
most informed international sources (IEA 2013 ) show that only a few countries are
likely to achieve a 50 % level of energy from renewable sources by mid-century
judging by current progress. This does not deny that there have been many break-
throughs in the technology of renewable energy resources and in their use, largely
from a very low base a generation ago, but in most cases the higher costs still reduce
their wider adoption. In addition it has been shown that all of the renewable sources
have specific problems that reduce their effectiveness. Although there are many
signs of new technical breakthroughs, the political will to radically alter the propor-
tion of energy from renewable sources is still limited, except in a few countries.
This is not to deny that progress is occurring. Reduced emissions schemes are being
pioneered in some manufacturing plants and by more efficient propulsion units on
cars, let alone by increasing numbers of electric and hybrid vehicles. Also, new gov-
ernment regulations and standards on the largest emission sources and approaches,
such as the adoption of carbon taxes or cap and trade policies, are showing how
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