Geography Reference
In-Depth Information
amount of deforestation increased beyond nature's ability to replenish the stocks de-
stroyed. Since similar levels of destruction were occurring in other areas of resource
extraction and development, the Bruntland report argued the case for sustainable
practices in all forms of development. In O'Riordan's (
2004
) succinct phrase this
moved the debate about the type of impact that humans were having upon the world,
which went “
beyond environmentalism towards sustainability
”. More specific and
localized plans of action to create sustainable practices came from another U.N.
conference in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 attended by most world leaders. Although a se-
ries of high minded resolutions were passed, few countries have kept to their prom-
ises to protect environments, to seek more renewable energy sources, or deal with
the growing human contribution to the carbon dioxide growth in the atmosphere.
A subsequent meeting on climate change in Kyoto led to the agreement in 1997 of
most countries to reduce the greenhouse gases build-up (GHG) under the protocol
named after the host city in two periods, first to 2012 and the from 2013 to 20. This
would aim to prevent these gases reaching 450 ppm which was initially considered
by the IPCC panel and their climate models to be the level that would ensure world
average temps would not exceed 2 ﾰC over pre-industrial levels when the GHG were
280 ppm. After the fifth report was published in late 2013 (IPCC
2013
) the chairman
of the panel of climate specialists reported that the latest research showed that to re-
strict a global temperature increase of 2 to 2.4 ﾰC above the levels in the 1850-1900
period would need a carbon dioxide stabilization in the 445-490 ppm range, and
assumed that a peak of emissions would occur by 2015 at the latest. However the
climate models also predict that an increase of 2.4 to 2.8 ﾰC would mean a carbon
dioxide stabilization level of 490-535 ppm, with peak emissions by 2020, whereas
a 2.8 to 3.2 ﾰC increase would occur if stabilization occurred at 535-590 ppm with
an emissions peak by 2030 (Pachauri
2013
). Despite this and other evidence of the
impending crisis and regular international conferences, limited progress has been
reached on an international scale, although a few countries and regional groupings
are reducing the levels of greenhouse gas build up. Unfortunately the U.S.A. did
not ratify the Kyoto treaty and since then many countries have abandoned their
initial commitment. Only 37 countries out of 191 now have binding commitments
to reduce emissions in the second phase and these only account for 13 % of global
greenhouse gas emissions, although this group does include the European Union.
Follow-up conferences in 2011 and 2013 produced a series of general intentions,
not firm, definable plans for concerted action by nation states at an international
level, although some individual countries are making major progress.
Much of the problem of a lack of agreement on emissions reductions comes
from governments either sceptical of the greenhouse gas-warming connection or of
their refusal to take action that would lead to higher energy prices, therefore putting
themselves at a competitive disadvantage. In addition many developing countries
believe that it is the industrialized world that created the problem so they should be
the ones to reduce emissions, rather than expecting developing countries to do so
and decrease their industrialization. Ethically they have a point, which is reinforced
by the fact their emissions were 2.9 t per person year in 2010 compared to 10.4 t
from the developed world (Raupach et al.
2007
). But its value is reduced when one
