Ionospheric Propagation Effects on GNSS Signals and New Correction Approaches - Global Navigation Satellite Systems: Signal,Theory and Applications - page 402

The elevation angle dependency for such an approximation of Eq. (43) is also plotted in
Fig. 11.
As already mentioned, after removal of the Selective Availability, the ionosphere becomes
the single largest error source for GNSS error budgets. Fortunately, a dual-frequency
ionosphere-free combination can remove about 99% of the ionospheric effects; thanks to the
dispersive nature of the ionosphere. Although higher order residual terms are less than 1%
of the first order term, they can be many centimeters during times of high TEC and
represent large errors in geodetic measurements especially in precise point positioning. This
chapter gives estimation of higher order ionospheric terms at different level of ionospheric
ionization and discusses different correction approaches for them.
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