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president Mariscal Santa Cruz, who had sponsored his visit to South America
( Seilacher, 2007 ). The significance of his work resides in the definition of a taxon
that was subsequently reinterpreted as a trace fossil, gaining immense popularity
worldwide.
6.2 Zoophytes and other Popular Interpretations
Together with the dominant botanical hypothesis, the interpretation of trace
fossils followed three other themes, namely, as zoophytes (plant-like ani-
mals); as worm-like body fossils; and as true invertebrate burrows, tracks,
and trails.
The plant-like aspect of branched burrows suggested the zoophyte interpre-
tation, which appeared even before Brongniart's (1823) seminal paper. Indeed,
Webster (1814) appears to have been the first to interpret Thalassinoides
paradoxica and Ophiomorpha as alcyonarian cnidarians. The “zoophyte” inter-
pretation was usually applied to such burrows as Oldhamia ( Forbes, 1848 ). The
zoophyte interpretation had a particular success in eastern Europe. For instance,
Zar˛czny (1878) described Spongia sudolica from the Cretaceous marls near Cra-
cow. As the etymology may suggest, the trace fossil was considered a sponge,
being later included in Spongeliomorpha ( Raciborski, 1890 ). Alongside to the
description of several fucoids from Russia, Estonia, and Ukraine, Eichwald
(1860-1968) presented Paleodictyon (his Cephalites maximus ) as a sponge.
A less conspicuous number of trace fossils were described as body fossils of anne-
lids. This is the case for Nereites MacLeay (1839) and “ Nemertilites ”(now
Scolicia ) strozzii ( Savi and Meneghini, 1851 ), both interpreted as marine worms.
In the same years, a minor part of scholars suggested the ichnological nature
of some trace fossils, but their morphological diversity was a particularly chal-
lenging subject. It is therefore not surprising that ichnological interpretations
often coexisted with other explanations. For instance, Savi and Meneghini
(1851) interpreted “ Nemertilites ” (now Scolicia ) strozzii as a “giant marine
worm” and Chondrites as seaweed, and in the same work, they admitted the ich-
nological origin of “ Nemertilites meandrites ” (possibly Scolicia ). Specifically,
they argued, “as it is impossible to see any animal remains, at least it is necessary
to recognize the action of an animal, that is, a physiological imprint ( impronta
fisiologica )”. This term is strongly reminiscent of d'Orbigny's “ emprintes phy-
siologiques ”( d'Orbigny, 1849 : 27-29). Another example is given by the paleo-
botanist Heer, who not only recognized several species of Zoophycos ,
Chondrites , and Gyrophyllites as fucoids, but also described Wurmsteine
( Helminthoiden ) as sediment-filled burrows of marine worms ( Heer, 1876/
1877 ; Supplementary Material: http://booksite.elsevier.com/9780444538130 ) .
Britain was a very fertile ground for the fucoid hypothesis (i.e., Buckland,
1836 ), but Victorian geologists were also familiar with animal traces on modern
tidal flats. For instance, Charles Lyell devoted some space in his Principles of
Geology to explain burrowingmollusks ( Lyell, 1833 : 288). It should also be noted
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