Biomedical Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
agencies that cover nano-enabled products. Some products and processes are
controlled under existing regulations but there are insufficient regulations of
the NMs, which enable some nano-enabled products to be released without
coverage by any regulations. This is particularly the case for titanium dioxide
(TiO
2
) that is used in sunscreen.
255,256
The US FDA reviewed the immediate
health effects of exposure but did not review its impacts for aquatic ecosystems
when the sunscreen rubs off, nor did the EPA, or any other agency.
257
In similar
context, the Australian Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA)
258
approved
the use of NMs in sunscreens (without inclusion in the package label) on the
basis that although NMs TiO
2
and zinc oxide (ZnO) produce free radicals and
oxidative DNA damage in vitro, these were unlikely to pass into the stratum
corneum of human skin. This decision was short sighted because it did not
consider prolonged use especially on children with cut skin, the elderly with
thin skin, people with diseased skin, or use over other skin imperfections.
259
A more thorough investigation of the long-term effects of NMs on the skin shows
that the uncoated anatase form of TiO
2
undergoes a photocatalytic reaction that
degraded the surface of newly installed prepainted steel roofs in areas that came
in contact with sunscreen coated hands of workers.
260
The rapid growth in nan-
otechnology and the fast upsurge of commercial products in the international
market are more than likely to create more gaps in regulation such as these.
Aside from titanium dioxide and zinc oxide NPs which are found in sunscreen,
cosmetics, and some food products, silver NPs are also found in food packag-
ing, clothing, disinfectants, and household appliances such as Silver Nano.
261,262
In the US, foresight on the potential of nanotechnology was immediately picked
up resulting in the creation of the National Nanotechnology, which is a federal
nanotechnology R&D program.
19
The goals of NNI are to advance a world-class
nanotechnology R&D program, foster the transfer of new technologies into prod-
ucts for commercial and public benefit, develop and sustain educational resources,
a skilled workforce, and the supporting infrastructure and tools to advance nano-
technology, as well as to support responsible development of nanotechnology.
19
The NNI was initially proposed by Mihail Roco to the Office of Science and Tech-
nology Policy to President Bill Clinton in 1999, who advocated nanotechnology
development. In 2003, President George W. Bush further increased funding for
nanotechnology and signed the Twenty-First Century Nanotechnology Research
and Development Act into law,
263
which authorized expenditures totaling US$3.63
billion over four years for five of the participating agencies.
1.4 THE FUTURE OF NANOTECHNOLOGY
Various efforts in the different sectors of nanotechnology ascertain the development
and discovery of many new materials with novel properties and new applications.
Different approaches in research related to nanofabrication and NM synthesis are
continuing to grow with the goal of developing more efficient, less expensive, and
more reproducible large-scale manufacturing techniques. These manufacturing
