Environmental Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
(and other water development) projects would be
required to share in the cost of these projects.
These two actions had a distinct impact on how
flood damage reduction projects were developed
over the next decades. Prior to the 1983 action,
national economic development and environmen-
tal quality were co-equal objectives, and regional
economic development and other social effects
were also to be considered. Limiting the justifica-
tion to economics disadvantaged flood damage
reduction projects where the principal benefit
rested in protection of lives or where the protected
properties were of low value, typically the case
with an economically disadvantaged population.
Cost sharing led to least-cost alternatives to en-
sure that the solutions proposed met the fiscal
capabilities as opposed to the flood damage reduc-
tion needs of the communities. The combination
of these two activities implicitly shifted the goal of
flood management from the general reduction in
flood losses to dealing with only those that were
affordable to the local communities and produced
large economic benefits. It moved the de facto
flood standard for levees towards 100-year protec-
tion as opposed to a much higher standard project
flood level, which had been the choice of theCorps
under full federal funding.
Neither the US Congress nor the Corps has
defined an explicit goal for management of the
nation's floodplains. The 1994White House study
of the 1993 Mississippi River flood pointed out
the lack of clear flood damage reduction policy.
National ResearchCouncil studies have noted the
lack of a comprehensive national water policy
(National Research Council 1999, 2002). Dialo-
gues held by the American Water Resources As-
sociation at the request of federal agencies in 2002,
2005 and 2007 also have reported to the President
the absence of federal or national water policies
(American Water Resources Association 2007).
Acceptance by the Congress or the Administra-
tion of the concepts of Integrated Water Resource
Management (IWRM) would represent a policy
statement but no move has been made in that
direction by either body. The Congress recently
held hearings on watershed planning but took no
other concerned public and private organizations,
to use all practicable means andmeasures, includ-
ing financial and technical assistance, in amanner
calculated to foster and promote the general wel-
fare, to create and maintain conditions under
which man and nature can exist in productive
harmony, and fulfill the social, economic, and
other requirements of present and future genera-
tions of Americans.' The environmental move-
ment also led to Congressional enactment of
other legislation designed to turn the philosophy
into actions. Laws were passed dealing with pro-
tection of endangered species, attainment of clean
water goals, preservation of historical resources,
and preservation of coastal areas. Actions to carry
out flood control activities quickly became em-
broiled in conflicts with the newly enacted envi-
ronmental legislation.
In 1977, shortly after taking office, President
Jimmy Carter issued an executive order establish-
ing as a goal the avoidance of the long- and short-
term adverse impacts of floodplain occupance and
modification. To avoid federal support of flood-
plain development, he directed that each federal
agency '
...
shall provide leadership and shall take
action to reduce the risk of flood loss, to minimize
the impact of floods on human safety, health and
welfare, and to restore and preserve the natural and
beneficial values served by floodplains in carrying
out its responsibilities' (Carter 1977). This action
defined the President's goal of accomplishing
activity in the floodplain in a manner that would
not further perpetuate flood losses or harm the
environment.
During the subsequent Administration, Presi-
dent Ronald Reagan was responsible for actions
that affected national goals and impacted the re-
lationship between federal and state governments
with respect to flood control. In 1983, he estab-
lished that 'The Federal objective of water and
related land resources project planning is to con-
tribute to national economic development consis-
tent with protecting the Nation's environment'
(USWater Resources Council 1983). In 1986, at his
behest, the Congress passed The Water Resources
Development Act (1986) requiring that states and
local communities seeking federal flood control
