Environmental Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
gender roles in the home may result in floods
having greater impacts upon women than men.
There is certainly evidence that women may ex-
perience more post-flood impacts than men, often
due to their greater domestic responsibilities,
which are increased or disrupted following flood-
ing (Fordham1998; Tapsell et al. 1999; Tapsell and
Tunstall 2001). The evidence on age is inconclu-
sive and effects may differ according to country
and cultural contexts. Younger, working adults
with young children may often suffer increased
stress levels as they have more responsibilities.
Some studies have found older people to be more
psychologically resilient to flooding, and there are
indications that ethnic minority groups may be
more adversely impacted due to language difficul-
ties, low incomes and ignorance of political pro-
cesses (Tapsell et al. 1999). Pre-disaster
functioning and individual personality may also
influence outcomes. Otto et al. (2006) found that
in a study of the 2002 floods inDresden, Germany,
a positive outlook on life and people's belief in a
just world were able to buffer psychological symp-
toms following a natural disaster. There is also
evidence for certain groups being more vulnerable
at certain
phases
of a flood event than others
(De Marchi et al. 2007, pp. 188-90; Steinfuhrer
and Kuhlicke 2007, pp. 113-5; Tunstall et al. 2007,
pp. 125-7). Different factors come into play in the
various phases of an event and affect specific
behavioural responses and coping activities. Local
context is a key factor: both local conditions and
event specifics.
Finally, it is suggested that values (norms and
beliefs) can be deeply relevant to understanding
community level response to flood hazard (Morris-
Oswald and Sinclair 2005). Awareness campaigns
that reflect social values and perspectives are like-
ly to be the most effective (Shaw et al. 2005; Renn
2008). Shared values indicate common motiva-
tions and can serve as the common ground to
achieve common goals, for example increased re-
silience. The Environment Agency in England and
Wales has looked at 'values modes' approaches to
inform how it could better target flood warnings
to people in different flood risk situations, for
example through better messaging and calls for
(Johnson et al. 2007). Political commitment and
perceived fairness in decision-making is therefore
crucial in building local confidence in future FRM.
Patterns of leadership can also be seen to impact
on the management of flood risk (Morris-Oswald
and Sinclair 2005). In Australia, community par-
ticipation has for many years helped to enhance
community preparedness and individual respon-
sibility (Rohrmann 2003). This further raises the
importance of local stakeholder and community
engagement in decision-making processes (see
Chapter18).
Individual and Societal Factors
A final range of factors can be identified that have
an overarching impact at every stage of the hazard
cycle and upon socio-psychological functioning,
and which need to be considered in FRM. These
factors include the individual and societal factors
highlighted in Figure 20.1. It might be expected
that specific social groups within communities,
for example older residents, long-term ill or dis-
abled, those on lower incomes, and minorities,
will be particularly vulnerable during flood events
(Fielding et al. 2006). These groups may (but not
necessarily under all conditions) need specific
targeting and support. Social vulnerability to
hazards is often derived from the political, social
and economic context (Blaikie et al. 1994; Cannon
2000; Parker 2000). Those who are most vulnera-
ble socially, politically and economically are like-
ly to be the least resilient in recovering from
floods, and may experience the most pronounced
impacts. Green et al. (2007) report that pre- and
post-disaster inequalities slowed recovery in New
Orleans following Hurricane Katrina, and suggest
that structural damage was not the only, or even
the primary, impediment to recovery for many
residents; instead it was the outcome of pre-exist-
ing social and economic marginalization. The
study provides lessons on the potential effects of
recovery planning on returning residents and
neighbourhoods.
Rose (1993), Fordham (1998) and others have
argued that the unequal social construction of
