Environmental Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
gation can be identified during the period follow-
ing flooding, and possibly impacting upon future
preparedness.
crisis-related psycho-bio-social needs through the
process of listening and formulating an action plan
for recovery.
Wider community impacts
Anxiety, cause of flood and trust in authorities
and structural measures
Disaster events and the recovery process can be
considered as social and communal phenomena,
not just affecting individuals. Floods can impair
the quality of community life due to the disrup-
tion of community activities and a sense of com-
munity breakdown (Norris et al. 2001; Tapsell and
Tunsall 2001). However, floods can also result in a
positive sense of communities pulling together
and helping each other, enabling mutual practical
and emotional support (Tapsell and Tunstall 2001;
Fernandez-Bilbao et al. 2008; Pitt 2008). Commu-
nity networks are often effective tools in aiding
recovery and reducing psychosocial impacts. In
Alberta, Canada, residents reported that their
communities were more helpful in dealing with
post-flood health problems than public and service
delivery sectors (Acharya et al. 2007).
Restoring the social fabric of communities is
therefore important in responding effectively to
the psychosocial and mental health effects of dis-
asters. Information and activities that normalize
reactions,protectsocialandcommunityresources,
and signpost access to additional services are
fundamental to effective psychosocial responses
(Williams et al. 2009). Post-disaster response may
thus be better aimed at mobilizing, maintaining
and enhancing natural community and social
support systems. Pelling (1997, 1998) identifies
households and communities as active agents in
the management of vulnerability to hazards. In-
volving communities in planning and implement-
ing responses will not only give people a sense of
partnership and ownership in managing emergen-
cies and recovery but may also reduce the uncer-
tainties and anxieties associated with flooding.
The maintenance of high levels of anxiety follow-
ing flooding may influence whether people take
actions to mitigate the risk of future events. One
of the hallmark symptoms of post-traumatic
stress disorder is physiological reactivity to trau-
matic reminders, such as heavy rainfall. Studies
have repeatedly cited respondents experiencing
anxiety when it rains heavily and when storms
are forecast; the most common behavioural re-
sponse reported is the monitoring of river levels
(e.g. see Tapsell et al. 1999; Tapsell and Tunstall
2001). These behavioural responses may be based
upon logical searches for the causes of a flood and
remedies for alleviating future flooding. Percep-
tion of the cause of flooding can be seen to have
an impact on perception of future risk as well as
on whether measures are taken to prepare for
that risk.
Loss of trust and confidence in local authorities
has been linked to the belief that flooding of
properties was not a 'natural' occurrence but due
to bad flood management, poor drainage manage-
ment, and inappropriate development within
floodplains rather than to climatic or weather
factors. The public often differ from flood risk
managers in their views on the cause of flooding
andmay not trust the institutions communicating
or managing the risks. Thus a 'culture of blame'
may develop with flood risks being open to social
definition and different interpretations and con-
structions (Cutter 1993). Lack of trust in respon-
sible authorities can be a significant factor
affecting socio-psychological responses to floods
and can impact upon how people engage with risk
information they receive from these sources.
Mitigation Before and After: Adaptation
I've got everything moved upstairs. I thought, I've
got to make sure because I don't believe anything
that they tell us, anyone
...
Resident, Rotherham (GfK NOP 2007, p. 22)
A number of factors affecting socio-psychological
dimensions of flood management and risk miti-
