Environmental Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
The impacts on human physical
health from floods
psychological health (RPA et al. 2004; Tunstall
et al. 2006). Evidence from 2007 indicates that
some UK insurance companies have improved
their service compared with earlier floods
(Pitt 2008). However, lack of insurance take-up
among low-income households is still an issue
that needs to be addressed. Such lack of insur-
ance can result in people having to return to
homes that have not been adequately dried and
repaired, or a delay in their return due to lack of
financial resources.
Loss of livelihood following flooding can be
particularly stressful for those affected, particular-
lywhere social welfare systems or social networks
are weak. Taking time off work to deal with re-
covery can lead to loss of wages and significant
financial concerns for those on low incomes. In-
creased debt enquiries were reported following
flooding in Hull, and mortgage and loan arrears
increased along with arrears in bill payments
(Pitt 2008). Farmers often bear the brunt of impacts
in rural areas, from loss of livestock and from
uninsured losses, for example to crops (GfK NOP
2007). Other businesses may also face direct and
indirect losses or reduction in trade. Owners of
small businesses in Carlisle spoke of the financial
and practical difficulties of recovery with little or
no support available, and stressed the psycholog-
ical impacts as well as the financial (Fernandez-
Bilbao et al. 2008).
Taylor (2000) suggests that governance struc-
tures and agencies need to become more respon-
sive to community needs. Following the 2005
Carlisle flood, a partnership project, Communities
Reunited, was set up to support the affected com-
munities; lead agencies included churches, local
authorities and voluntary agencies. This initiative
was seen as very successful in meeting commu-
nity needs and in aiding recovery. Residents spoke
of needing very practical support, and someone
who would listen and who would help find a
path through the maze of decisions that had to be
taken (Fernandez-Bilbao et al. 2008). Importantly,
Carlisle authorities have used the recovery process
as an opportunity to regenerate parts of the city,
rather than simply returning them to their pre-
flood state.
There is presently a weak evidence base to assess
the health impacts of flooding (WHO 2003; Hajat
et al. 2005). Relatively few rigorous studies have
been undertaken, and it is extremely difficult to
assess the duration of symptoms and disease, as
well as the attribution of cause, without longitu-
dinal data. Few and Matties (2006) presented find-
ings from a wide-ranging epidemiological review
of the evidence base for health outcomes from
flooding and a review of literature analysing me-
chanisms of response to such health risks. The
greatest burden of mortality from floods is from
drowning, heart attacks, hypothermia, trauma
and vehicle-related accidents. More frequently,
common physical health effects result fromminor
injuries (Schmidt et al. 1993; Manuel 2006), diar-
rhoeal episodes (Wade et al. 2004; Reacher
et al. 2004) and respiratory disease (Menne 1999;
Franklin et al. 2000). Skin irritations, burns, elec-
trocutions, and chemical and carbon monoxide
poisoning are also common. The effect of floods
increasing the risk to public health is relatively
rare in developed countries due to good sanitation
and water supplies (Malilay 1997; Meusel and
Kirch 2005; Ahern and Kovats 2006), although it
is not unknown (see above and Chapter 21). How-
ever, with normal routines disrupted other aspects
of lifemay also suffer; diet and exercise is one such
area. Nutritional status can be affected due to
reliance on different and poorer quality foodstuffs.
People may have to rely on takeaway foods as they
have no kitchens inwhich to cook, as well as often
a lack of motivation to cook.
We had a takeaway every night for three months
and I don't mind admitting that
...
what me and
my wife did we had one meal a day because you
couldn't go for a takeaway in the morning, in the
dinner time and so what we did was and it's daft
becausewe've got used to it, we eat onemeal a day,
the baby gets fed at creche.
Resident, Barnsley (GfK NOP 2007, p. 13)
A further social effect of floods is due to the
likely disruption of normal health care provision
