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these changes in the context of tourism, which has evolved along similar
patterns. Referring on Hettne's (2009) argument, development paradigms
need to be viewed in their historic context and not to be construed as evolv-
ing to a universal theory of development thinking. As development thought
has evolved, new paradigms can be viewed in part as a reaction to previous
paradigms; however the old paradigms are still influential today. Moderni-
sation was criticised for its lack of local control of the tourist industry and
capital flight, which led to neo-colonialism. The structuralist school, which
is part of the background to the dependency paradigm, advocated protection-
ist measures to ensure there was local control of the industry. Economic
neoliberalists felt there was too much government control in the previous
paradigms and advocated a free market approach to the tourist industry
under globalisation. International tourism is an export industry and, as such,
under economic neoliberalism, it should be permitted to operate under neo-
classical economic principles with limited government involvement. The
alternative development paradigm addressed the weaknesses of the previous
three paradigms, which paid little attention to the environment or the con-
cept of sustainability. The importance of linkages to local communities is
stressed in alternative development. With the perceived failure of develop-
ment, development studies went through an impasse in the 1980s with main-
stream development theories not being able to accommodate the widening
gap between the rich and poor. Out of the impasse came a range of theories
or approaches critical of globalisation and those in the post-development
camp called for the end of development itself. Development thinking contin-
ued to increase in complexity and the 1990s saw a focus on human develop-
ment with links to human rights, good governance, state-led development,
civil society and social capital, transnational social movements, cultural
studies and human security. More recently, there is evidence of an emerging
discourse focused on global development with attention paid to improve-
ments in international relations and global governance by supranational
political institutions still to be built (Hettne, 2009). The UN has already set
up a System Task Team on the Post-2015 UN Development Agenda as we
move past the date for the Millennium Development Goals. In noting the
complexity of development, Knutsson (2009: 38) remarks that 'the goal of
contemporary mainstream development thinking seems to be a complex
merger of poverty reduction, economic growth, enhanced capabilities,
human rights, security, democracy, gender equality, environmental sustain-
ability and so on and so forth whereby different schools of development
thought such as modernisation, sustainable development, human develop-
ment and global development becomes largely mixed up'. As development
theory transitioned and evolved, so did tourism in its approach. Transitions
can be seen in the evolution of tourism in product development, research and
debates over tourism and growth poles, tourism and neo-colonialism, glo-
balisation and tourism, sustainable tourism, pro-poor tourism and tourism
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