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most unorganized communities that otherwise might not receive any type
of international aid and in that specialized sense are acting in a more effec-
tive manner at the local level than many governments'. They indicate that
tourism-oriented NGOs have grown substantially, taking advantage of
recent trends in globalisation, including technology, travel, philanthropy,
CRS and fair trade in tourism; however, their effectiveness at reducing pov-
erty is difficult to measure.
The cultural turn in human development is reflected in the work of Hall
and Tucker (2004) on tourism and post-colonialism and the launching of the
Journal of Tourism and Cultural Change
in 2003, with the increasing recogni-
tion of the role of cultures and the influences that the colonial past has on
tourism. Aitchison (2006) and Bianchi (2009) also examine the 'critical' and
'cultural' turn in relation to tourism studies. Bianchi (2009) states that the
'critical' turn in tourism studies is a product of the 'cultural turn' in social
sciences and the influence of post-structuralism, whereby tourism studies
embrace multiple worldviews and cultural studies (Ateljevic
et al.
, 2007, cited
in Bianchi, 2009). State-led development is about the state taking back more
responsibility from the market. In tourism we have seen the state take on
more active roles in regard to regional development and place promotion as
well as providing investment incentives for tourism. Special Economic
Zones and urban regional development projects continue to highlight
tourism and EU funding is provided for rural development projects (see
Chapter 5). Lastly, authors in tourism research have been analysing the rela-
tionship between tourism and security, including the concept of security and
destination image and the impact of terrorism. Tourism has also been exam-
ined in post-conflict areas. In the context of Bosnia Herzegovina, Causevic
and Lynch (2013) found that tourism was ahead of other industries in
encouraging partnerships between sides that were previously in conflict.
Global Development
Nearing the halfway point of the second decade of the 21st century, we
can ask the question: in what direction is development thought moving
?
It
is important to remember that previous paradigms do not fade away as time
goes on but, rather, continue to inform development thinking. This section
here draws greatly on several works by Björn Hettne. Hettne (2009) argues
for what he calls global development. He states that this is so new that he
refers to it as an emerging discourse that is lacking in social practice. In
setting out his argument, Hettne (2009) draws on the work of Polanyi's
([1944] 2001) 'great transformations'. These transformations are a combina-
tion of two movements, the first being an expansion of the market and the
second being society defending itself through political intervention to
respond to the disorder caused by market expansion (Hettne, 2009). This is
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