The Evolution of Development Theory and Tourism - Tourism and Development: Concepts and Issues - page 58

influences on the study and practice of sustainable tourism. The debates
and criticisms surrounding the term sustainable development were incor-
porated into research on tourism, including what is sustainable tourism
development and who decides what is sustainable in various contexts (Hall,
2000; Hall & Lew, 1998; Mowforth & Munt, 1998, 2009) (see Chapter 9).
Saarinen (2006) identified three main traditions of sustainability in tour-
ism studies. The resource-based tradition reflects on the limits of resources
and the need to protect nature and local culture. The activity-based tradi-
tion refers to the resource needs of the industry for present and future
development in order to sustain economic capital investment in tourism.
The third is the community-based tradition, which focuses on wider
involvement and empowerment of various actors especially host communi-
ties with an emphasis on social capital. Saarinen (2006) argues it is the
activity-based tradition that is the widely accepted hegemonic idea of sus-
tainability as it reflects the idea that tourism as a tool for development can
contribute to sustainability.
There was increased recognition that tourism planning must be guided
by principles of sustainable development (Gunn, 1994; Holden, 2000;
Inskeep, 1991) and this was promoted by the UNWTO. Researchers began
examining the fact that indigenous communities are not only impacted by
tourism but they respond to it through entrepreneurial activity (Dahles
1997; Long & Wall, 1993; Lundgren, 1975; Shaw & Williams, 1990, 1994,
1998; Telfer, 2000; Telfer & Wall, 1996; Wall, 1995; Wahnschafft, 1982).
Long and Wall (1996) studied small-scale lodging establishments in Bali and
found that conversion into homestays allowed residents to be entrepreneurs
in tourism, but there were social and environmental costs. In Tufi, Papua
New Guinea, Ranck (1987) found that small-scale guesthouses based on
local ownership and management is a viable industry. They used local
labour and construction materials and few imported foods. Archer (1978)
found that domestic tourism may be a better generator of local income than
international tourism as it relies more on local sources. Telfer and Wall
(1996) examined the response of local farmers and fishermen to the intro-
duction of tourism on the island of Lombok, Indonesia. Authors in the field
of tourism planning also began to stress the need for local community
involvement and empowerment in the planning process (Gunn, 1994; Hall,
1994c; Inskeep, 1991; Jamal & Getz, 1995; Murphy, 1983; Simmons, 1994);
however, there are often institutional obstacles in developing countries to
community involvement, which may be difficult to overcome in these des-
tinations (Sofield, 1993). Some of the obstacles for increased community
development are explored in Chapters 6 and 7. As part of understanding the
empowerment of local people in the tourism industry, authors also explored
the nature of gender, work and tourism (Apostolopoulos et al. , 2001; Cukier,
2002; Kinnaird & Hall, 1994; Sinclair, 1997; Hashimoto & Telfer, 2011;
Wilkinson & Pratiwi, 1995).